level, and two and one-half feet above the level of the water in the
spring, showing that the spring, by the deposit of carbonate of lime
from its waters, has formed a basin-wall for itself, and allowed its level
to be raised above the surrounding valley. This calcareous basin is
twenty-five feet across and does not show bottom, except around the
edges, which are rocky; a twelve-foot pole thrust into the middle did
not find bottom. The temperature of the spring was 130° Fahr. at the
surface. From one point below bubbles of gas arose in great abundance
(carbonic acid). The water is agreeable to the taste." '
In Colorado, the Middle Park Hot Springs, situated in Grand
County, eight thousand feet above the level of the sea, in the midst of
magnificent scenery, are rapidly coming into favor. They are accessi-
ble by stage and horseback, about sixty miles from Central City, on the
Colorado Central Railroad; or by one hundred miles stage and horseback
from Golden City, on the same railroad. "The favorite route," as
given by Walton, 3 " is by the way of Berthoud Pass. Having arrived at
Georgetown, the tourists procure saddle and pack horses, and guides.
The first day's journey will be over the summit of the range, eleven
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and through a dense forest of
timber for fourteen miles beyond, to the head of the park. Here camp
is usually made. The next day's ride is down an open valley or arm of
the park, following for some miles the course of Fraser's River. The
route by South Boulder Pass is tedious and difficult, the road passing
over the extreme summit of the range, more than 12,000 feet above the
sea, where snow-storms are not unusual in July and August. The
1 T. Antisell, M.D. " Government Exploration for Pacific Railroad," vol. vii.,
-p. 156.
s Op. cit , p. 306.
15
226
TOPOGRAPHY, ETC., OF THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS.
James Peak route is one of the most interesting, the road winding
around the mountain, one of the highest points in the range, and the
the ascent easily made. All the roads, however, after crossing the
mountains, meet together in the valley of the Fraser Eiver. Thence
the road is a pleasant carriage-drive along the meadow-like valleys, with
timbered ridges or table-lands to the right and left. The grass is of luxu-
riant growth and great variety. Clover of several kinds, and the blue
flowering flax, are seen everywhere. All through late spring and early
summer, the prairies are bright with flowers, and the air laden with
their fragrance. Delightful camping places are seen all along the route,
and days or weeks can be whiled away in Arcadian simplicity and en-
joyment.
" Arrived at the Springs, there are several houses, a little trading es-
tablishment, and a primitive blacksmith-shop. The springs, many in
number, are grouped together on an embankment, three hundred feet
from Grand River, and about thirty feet above it. The stream formed
by the united overflow of the springs is from three to five inches deep,
and four to six feet wide. The flow is probably much greater than
that recorded. The sources vary in temperature from 111° to 116° Fahr.
Curiously enough, on the opposite side of the river is a cold sulphur
spring \"
One pint contains.
Solids.
Carbonate of soda
Carbonate of magnesia
Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of sodium. .
Sulphate of potassa. . .
Sulphate of soda
Sulphate of magnesia.
Iron and ammonia.
Lithia
Silicic acid
Total
Gases.
Carbonic acid
No. 3. 97^° F.
E. J. Mallet.
Grains.
3.687
No. 5. 115° F.
E. J. Mallet.
Grains.
4.921
0.241
0.460
1.661
1.745
0.129
0.119
2.191
1.231
0.656
traces
traces
traces
0.077
6.164
8.401
8.881
Cubic inches.
Cubic inches.
2.22
2.50
Manitou Springs, Manitou, El Paso County, five miles west by stage
from Colorado Springs station, on Denver and Rio Grande Railroad,
6,529 feet above the level of the sea, and within view of Pike's Peak.
No analysis of this water accessible; but from an analysis of the salts,
TOPOOBAPHT, KTO., OF ill 1: WESTERN EIGH LANDS.
227
obtained by boiling down an unknown quantity, T. M. Drown, of Phila-
delphia, gives the following percentage:
Bicarbonate of soda,
Bicarbonate of magnesia,
Bicarbonate of lime,
Chloride of potassium,
Chloride of sodium,
Sulphate of soda,
Qrains.
24.01
8.89
15.62
10.01
36.651
4.78
100.00
Pagosa Springs, in Conejos County, from Del Norte, a station on
Del Norte Branch of Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. Hot purgative
waters, said to resemble the famous Carlsbad of Bohemia. One pint
contains (140" Fahr.):
Solids.
Carbonate of soda,
Carbonate of lime,
Carbonate of lithia,
Carbonate of sodium,
Chloride of sodium.
Sulphate of potassa, .
Sulphate of soda,
Silica, .....
Organic matter, ....
Grains.
0.342
0.353
4,300
0.051
2.132
0.519
. 16.146
0.415
trace.
Total,
24.258
Rocky Mountains Springs, Boulder County, twelve miles from
Jamestown, a station on railroad from Denver to Boulder City. Calcic-
aperient and chalybeate. One pint contains (C. T. Jackson):
Solids.
Carbonate of soda,
Carbonate of magnesia,
Carbonate of lime,
Carbonate of iron,
Chloride of sodium,
Sulphate of soda,
Iodide and bromide of sodium,
Silicate of soda,
Total,
Grains.
0.474
0.049
5.414
0.362
0.620
13.075
0.162
0.500
20.656
Carbonic acid gas, amount undetermined.
Idaho Hot Springs, Clear Creek County, Col., Colorado Division of
Union Pacific Railroad from Denver, thirty-eight miles from Denver.
One pint contains (85° to 115° Fahr. J. G. Dohle):
2-2$
TOPOGRAPHY, ETC., OF THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS.
Solids.
Carbonate of soda,
Carbonate of magnesia,
Carbonate of iron, .
Carbonate of lime,
Chloride of sodium,
Chloride of magnesium.
Chloride of calcium.
Sulphate of soda,
Sulphate of magnesia,
Sulphate of lime,
Silicate of soda,
Total,
Grains.
3.85
0.36
0.52
1.19
0.52
trace.
trace.
3.67
2.34
0.43
0.51
13.39
Canon City Springs. Canon City, Fremont County. Station on
Pueblo Branch of Denver and Eio Grande Eailroad, one hundred and
sixtv-one miles from Denver. Mild alkaline, and warm :
One pint contains.
Iron Duke.
Prof. Leon.
Little Ute.
Prof. Leon.
Hot Springs. 102° F.
Prof. Leon.
Solids.
Carbonate of soda
Grains.
9.598
1.824
trace.
4.124
trace.
10.373
1.524
Grains.
9.548
1.749
trace.
2.812
trace.
14.747
1.513
Grains.
9.148
Carbonate of magnesia
1.599
Carbonate of lithia
trace.
4.086
trace.
2,264
9.910
Total
27.443
30.369
27.007
Chalk Creek Hot Springs, Chaffee County, P. 0. Xathrop, Col.
Temperature, 130° F. One pint contains (Prof. G-. E. Patrick):
Solids.
Carbonate of potassa.
Carbonate of magnesia,
Carbonate of lime,
Chloride of potassium,
Sulphate of soda, .
Silicate of soda,
Silica,
Lithia, .
Organic matter, .
Total,
Grains.
0.016
0.078
0.244
0.079
0.771
0.324
0.254
trace,
trace.
1.766
Carlisle Springs and Parnassus Springs, South Pueblo, Pueblo
County, are good alkaline waters with some chalybeate properties.
TOPOOKAi'iiv, ETC., OF THE WESTEBX BIGHLANDS. l'^'.*
Port** Springs, near Denver, are sulphurous-chalybeate. One pint
contains (Prof, B.J. Mallett, Jr.):
Solids. drains.
Carbonate of soda, ...... 0.726
Carbonate of magnesia, ..... 0.124
Carbonate of lime, ...... 1.285
Chloride of sodium, ...... O.GGG
Chloride of magnesium, ..... 0.142
Sulphate of potassa ...... 0.037
Sulphate of soda, ....... 3.442
Sulphate of sodium, ...... 0.238
Silicate of soda, ....... 0.112
Oxide of iron ....... 0.187
Ammonia, ....... trace
Total, ........ 0.959
Carbonic acid gas, and sulphuretted hydrogen in undetermined quantities.
South Park Springs, Park County, on the South Platte River,
in the southern portion of the park, eight to ten thousand feet above the
level of the sea, surrounded by magnificent scenery, are alkaline.
The American Geysers, in Wyoming, though with medical pro-
perties as yet undefined, are among the grandest springs in the world.
As described by Gen'l H. D. Washburn, in Scribner's Monthly, in
1871:
"Our search for new wonders leading us across the Fire Hall River,
we ascended a gentle incrusted slope, and came suddenly upon a large
oval aperture with scalloped edges, the diameters of which were eighteen
and twenty-five feet, the sides corrugated and covered with a grayish-
white siliceous deposit, which was distinctly visible at the depth of one
hundred feet below the surface. No water could be discovered, but we
could distinctly hear it gurgling and boiling at a great distance below.
Suddenly it began to rise, boiling and spluttering and sending out huge
masses of steam, causing a general stampede of our company, driving us
some distance from our point of observation. When within about forty
feet of the surface, it became stationary, and we returned to look down
upon it. It was foaming and surging at a terrible rate, occasionally
emitting small jets of hot water nearly to the mouth of the orifice. All
at once it seemed seized with a fearful spasm, and rose with incredible
rapidity, hardly affording us time to flee to a safe distance, when it burst
from the orifice with terrific momentum, rising in a column the full size
of this immense aperture to the height of sixty feet; and through and
out of the apex of this vast aqueous mass five or six lesser jets, or round
columns of water, varying in size from six to fifteen inches in diameter,
were projected to the marvellous height of two hundred and fifty feet.
These lesser jets, so much higher than the main column, and shooting
through it, doubtless proceed from auxiliary pipes leading into the prin-
230 TOPOGRAPHY, ETC., OF THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS.
cipal orifice near the bottom, where the explosive force is greater. If
the theory, that water by constant boiling becomes explosive when freed
from air be true, this theory rationally accounts for all irregularities in
the eruption of the geysers.
' ' This grand, eruption continued for twenty minutes, and was the most
magnificent sight we ever witnessed. We were standing on the side of
the geyser nearest the sun, the gleams of which filled the column of
sparkling water and spray with myriads of rainbows, whose arches were
constantly changing, dipping, and fluttering hither and thither, and dis-
appearing only to be succeeded by others, again and again, amid the aque-
ous column, while the minute globules into which the spent jets were
diffused when falling sparkled like a shower of diamonds, and around
every shadow which the denser clouds of vapor, interrupting the sun's
rays cast upon the column, could be seen a luminous circle radiant with
all the colors of the prism, and resembling the halo of glory repre-
sented in paintings encircling the head of the divinity. All that we had
previously seen seemed tame in comparison with the perfect grandeur and
beauty of this display. Two of these wonderful eruptions occurred dur-
ing the twenty-two hours we remained in the valley. This geyser we
named the 'giantess.'
"A hundred yards distant from the 'giantess' was a siliceous cone,
very symmetrical but slightly corrugated upon its exterior surface, three
feet in height and five feet in diameter at its base, and having an oval
orifice twenty-four by thirty-six feet and one-half inches in diameter,
with scalloped edges. Not one of our company supposed it was a geyser;
and among so many wonders it had almost escaped notice. While we
were at breakfast upon the morning of our departure, a column of water,
entirely filling the crater, shot from it, which, by actual triangular
measurement, we found to be two hundred and nineteen feet in height.
The stream did not deflect more than four or five degrees from a vertical
line, and the eruption lasted eighteen minutes. We named it the ' bee-
hive.'
Five other geysers were observed by the exploring party, which were
variously named according to the degree of activity, the shape of the
column of water, or the form of the siliceous deposit about the orifice.
... The ' Fan ' . . . The ' Grotto ' . . . The < Castle ' . . . The
'Giant.' . . .
" The party did not analyze the waters. The sinter was both carbon-
iferous and siliceous, the latter characteristic predominating; and we
may with confidence conclude that the waters contains considerable
silica in solution."
The springs observed in this region, which resembled boiling mud,
deposited a sediment of various colors — some white, some delicate laven-
der, and others of a brilliant pink. An analysis of specimens of this
sediment, by Prof. Augustus Staitz, gave the following results:
TOPOGRAPHY, ' •''«'•< '" IIM rTTOTEBH HIGHLANDS.
281
Soups.
White Bedl m
per oent.
Lavender Bed.
per oent.
Pink Sediment.
per '•••lit.
L2.2
:;:":. 1
18.7
6.6
LOO.O
28.2
4.2
58.6
8.2
0.6
6.2
B2.6
".vj.'i
Oxide of iron
4.2
2.6
Total .
100.0
100.0
In Xevada, hot springs have been described near Pueblo, in Hum-
bolt County; and ' Volcano' Springs in Lander County; but the sur-
roundings have not yet been improved, nor the water analyzed.
In Montana, white sulphur springs, sixty miles by stage from Liv-
ingston, a station on the Northern Pacific Eailroad, in a broad valley,
surrounded by mountains, whose peaks are covered with perpetual snow,
are said to exist, but no analysis of the water has been published, and
improvements are yet in embryo.
In Utah, near Salt Lake City, Salt Lake Hot (sulphur) Springs are a
popular resort for invalids from thereabouts for skin diseases and rheu-
matism. Temperature 110° to 128 F.; no analysis available.
OHAPTEE XVIII.
CLIMATOLOGICAL TOPOGRAPHY AND MINERAL SPRINGS
OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE.
The mountain slope to the Pacific is, for the most part, very abrupt
and irregular. It begins in latitude 62° north, with the descending
grade of the Alaska Mountains southerly, and westerly into Alaska pen-
insula, 350 miles long and 25 miles in average breadth. And from the
base of Alaska peninsula the slope continues an irregular parallel with
the coast all the way from Alaska to Southern California. From the in-
terior westward there is a continuous and quite uniform range — the
Sierra Nevada of California, and the Cascade Mountains of Oregon.
North of 50° latitude all these are merged into and consist of off-shoots
from the Rocky Mountains. The whole range is sharp, with snowy,
humid summits clothed with forests for the most part, and very rarely
taking on the plateau form, except to a slight extent in the south of
Oregon and the north of California. ' But at the southern extremity of
the Sierra Nevada, latitude 34£°, the range declines so much from about
that point to its termination in the peninsula of Lower California as to
lose its climatic influence.
The climate of this extensive coast slope is exceedingly varied by
reason of the broken nature of the surface, but greatly modified through-
out by proximity to the ocean, and considerably warmer and more equable
than in corresponding latitudes in the interior.
Of the surface and climate of Alaska, as observed in the vicinity of
Sitka, Assistant Surgeon John Brooke, U. S. Army : / gives the following
description:
" The town of Sitka, including the military post of the same name,
is located on the western side of Baranoff Island, in latitude 57° 3' north;
longitude 58° 36 west. It is built upon the shore of Sitka Bay, about
ten miles from the ocean, and upon a point of the island where the Bay
divides into two arms, one of which runs about ten miles into the island,
and terminates in Silver Bay, while the other passes round the northern
end of the island to join the inland waters. . . .
" The physical appearance of the country around Sitka has been likened
to the first picture in the common school atlas of the comparative height of
1 Op. cit., p. 482.
TOPOGRAPHY, ETC., OF mi: r \< 1 1 i< â– SLOPS. 233
mountains. A. chain of mountain peaks of various heights encompa
the place <>n every side, except that toward the open sea, while the, nar-
row strip of level country which lies between tin' town and the mountain
base is so covered with moss and rotten timber that its surface resembles
water-soaked sponges. Several small glaciers can be seen on the moun-
tain sides during the middle of summer; in winter they are entirely
covered with snow. Some ten orfifteen miles westward from the town is
Mount Edgecombj an extinct volcano, with the furrowed tufa near the
top and the crater still plainly visible. It forms an important landmark
for mariners entering the bay.
The tops of the mountains, which almost encompass the place, are
more or less covered with snow and ice during the entire year, and con-
sequently act as condensers to the moisture contained in the warmer air,
which comes in from the ocean. Rain is, therefore, an almost daily
feature of the place. During the winter, snow sometimes takes the place
of rain, lying last winter to the depth of over three feet at one time.
During the year 1873, the rain-fall was 74. G4 inches. In one month of
this year (October, 1874), it amounted to 17.98 inches. The cold is
never very intense, the thermometer seldom, if ever, getting as low as
zero; while, on the other hand, it rarely reaches 70 in the warmest sum-
mer weather, and fires are lighted almost every day in the year. During
the shortest days there are but six hours of sunlight; and as the sun only
attains an elevation of about 10% it follows that on cloudy days, which
is the rule, it is dark and gloomy at mid-day, while during the months of
June and July it never grows entirely dark, the nights being rather a
prolonged twilight.
" It might naturally be supposed that in such a climate acute rheu-
matism and acute pulmonary inflammation would be very common, but
such is not the case. During a tour of nearly fifteen months, I have seen
but one case of acute rheumatism, and not a single case of uncomplicated
pneumonia or pleuritis. Cases of subacute rheumatism, however, and
pains and aches of a few days' duration are quite frequent. Pulmonary
phthisis is not uncommon, and forms a large percentage of the cases of
disease even among the native Indians.
" Cases of sickness not infrequently occur in which there is a general
adynamic condition of the system without definable disease, a condition
which is doubtless due to the depressing influences of almost continuous
wet, and cool and cloudy weather; a monotonous diet, in which fresh
fruits and vegetables play an insignificant part; the almost entire ab-
sence of out-door amusements, and the want of opportunities for suffi-
cient exercise in the open air."
Of 712 cases of disease recorded at the post during four years, 1870-
1874, two were for consumption. The most prevalent disease was rheu-
matism, of which there were 130 cases. There were but four deaths, two
234 TOPOGRAPHY, ETC., OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE.
of which are classed under the head of " other local diseases," and the
other two, one drowned, and bhe other suicide.
The climate of Washington Territory, at the altitude of 2,800 feet
above the sea, latitude 48° 41' north; longitude 40° 52' west; is described
by Assistant Surgeons E. G. Chase and W. D. Baker, IT. S. Army, 1 as
being cold in the extreme; the atmosphere dry, crisp, and bracing.
"â– Malarial diseases entirely unknown in the country. Not one case of
phthisis originated at the place; but two or three cases, which were im-
ported, rapidly improved under treatment; phthisis, however, is very
prevalent and very fatal among the Indians/'
Of 219 cases of disease recorded at the military post during four
years, 1870-74, there was one only of phthisis. The most prevalent dis-
eases were rheumatism, catarrhal and diarrhceal diseases.
At Fort Vancouver, situated on the Columbia River, one hundred
and twenty miles from its mouth, latitude 45° 40' north; longitude 48
27' west; on information furnished by Surgeon-General J. K. Barnes,
Surgeons J. II. Bill and R. H. Alexander, U. S. Army, 2 for the same
period, of 1,091 cases of disease recorded, three were for consumption.
The most prevalent diseases were catarrh and bronchitis (223 cases),
diarrhceal diseases and rheumatism.
According to the report 3 of Surgeon C. H. Alden, U. S. Army, from
Fort Walla Walla, in the southeastern part of the Territory, latitude
46° 4' north; longitude 40° 21' west; 865 feet above the level of the sea,
the prevalent diseases at the post and in the vicinity are malarial and
rheumatic affections. Of 288 recorded cases of disease at the post, there
were for diarrhoea and dysentery 35, catarrh and bronchitis 30, other local
causes 101, for rheumatism and phthisis none.
The climate of Oregon in the interior, and at an altitude of 4,000
feet and upwards, as observed by Assistant Surgeons Charles Styer, R.
Knickerbocker, and C. B. Byrne, U. S. Army, from Camp Harney,
latitude 43° 30' north; longitude 41° 27' west; and Assistant Surgeon
Henry McEldevy, U. S. Army, from Fort Klamath, in southwestern
Oregon, latitude 42° 39' 4" north; longitude 44° 40' west; is very severe
in the winter months; and frosts during every month in the year. Of
836 cases of disease recorded at the first-mentioned of these posts during
four years, 1870-1874, three were for consumption; and at the second,
for the same period, of 659 cases, 14 were for consumption. Catarrh and
bronchitis, diarrhceal diseases and rheumatism were prevalent. At Fort
Stevens, situated upon the extremity of Point Adams, at the mouth of the
Columbia River, on a low sandy spit, covered with a heavy growth of
'Op. cit., pp. 463, 468.
"Op. cit. p. 488.
3 Op. cit., p. 492.
TOF0QBAPHY, ETC., OF THE PACIFIC BLOPS. 235
of spruce and hemlock, Assistant Surgeon I). L. Huntington, ('. 8.
A i- my, reports: '
"The climate is equable, much more so than on the same isothermal
line of the Atlantic coast. The year is practically divided into a dry and
Wet season. The former embraces the months of May, June. .Inly,
August, and September, during which hut little ram falls. The rains
commence usually in October, and continue almost without intermis-
sion until May.
"Sudden or excessive changes of temperature are very uncommon.
During the year 1873, the highest recorded temperature la 86°j the
lowest, 24°. The average mean temperature of several years is about 54°.
"Snow and ice are not common, and generally, during the winters,
vegetation is not entirely suspended.
"The annual rain-fall is excessive, and is confined to the wet season.
During 1873, 77.80 inches fell, which is about the average.
" The prevailing winds of winter are southeast and southwest, occa-
i ally northeast. The former are warm and humid; the latter, dry
and cold. During summer, the prevailing wind is from the northeast.*"
Of 21G cases of disease recorded at the post during the four years 1
observation, two were for consumption. The most prevalent diseases
were those classed under the head of "local diseases," but none particu-
larly prominent.
In California alone, the climate extends over almost ten degrees of
latitude. But that of the sea-shore is generally influenced by the tem-
perature of the ocean. The cold current which flows out of Behring
Strait and hugs the coast inside of the Kuro-sievo, or Pacific ocean-
current, similar to the Gulf stream, has a temperature of from 52 to
54° the year round. From April to October, inclusive, north or north-
west Avinds prevail, and almost daily during this period a deluge of cold,
damp air, of nearly the same temperature as the ocean over which it has
passed, is poured upon the land. It is commonly laden with mist in
dense clouds, which it deposits at the foot of hills, and on the slopes of
the high lands, or carries a short distance into the interior.
"Wherever there is a break in the mountain wall which shuts off these
mists from the sunny valleys of Middle California, the climate is, as
nearly as possible, the opposite of the sea-coast climate in every respect;
so effectually do the mountains shut off the basins of the interior.
Notwithstanding, it is remarkable to observe that of G,792 cases of
disease recorded at the military posts, during a period of four years,
1870-1874, in California near the sea-level — the greatest altitude being
397 feet — 30, or one in 226.5, were for consumption; while of 422 cases