pr«v»iK>il.— C
fcxiliiviuera.— Uofloctions on this Siilijoct— Mo-
lion ri»(>«>itiii« tho Holy AUinnco by Mr. 15io\ii;h-
am. — Hill lor the di-tontioii of Nnpoloon. — Mar-
riai;i> of tho I'riiiccss Clmrlotte of NVnIos.— Votes
for public Monumonts. — Mominionts to Sir T. I'ic-
Ion Biiil others. — lirants to tho Ollicers niui Men
employed in iho War. — New Coinage. — Uellec-
tions on tho preeeding parliamentary Narrative.
— KtForts of tho factious to stir up Sedition. — Spa-
licld Uiots. — Expedition to Aljriers. — Outrages
which led to it.— Description of Algiers. — Lord
Kxiuouth's Preparations for nn Attack. — The man-
ning and liltins; out of the Fleet. — Departure of
the' Fleet andA'ovaLrc to Algiers.— Preparations
oftheAlgerines.— Arrival of the Fleet off Algiers.
-Commencement of the Battle. — Continuance of
tho Action, and Positions taken by the Ships. —
Destruction of tho Enemy's Ships and Flotilla. —
The Fleet moves out of the Bay. — Results of the
Battle, and killed and wounded.— The Algoriues
subuli^ and Peace is concluded. — Honors bestow-
ed on Lord Exmouth and the Fleet. — Reflections
on this Battle, ami the commencement of the as-
cendant of Christianity over Mobammedauisni. —
Progressive ascendant of Christianity over Mo-
hammedanism.
CHAPTER ni.
HISTORY OF FR.\SCE mOM THE SECOND HESTOR.V-
TICS OK LOLIS XVIII. TO THE OUDI.NANCES OF
SEPTEMBER 7, 1816.
Extraordinary DiflBculties of the Government of
France after the Battle of Waterloo. — Difliculties
arising from the changeable disposition of the
French People. — Important effects this produced
in 1815, and Causes of the violence of Opinion. —
Unbounded Humiliation and Sufferings of France
at this time. — Which occasions a universal Re-
action against Napoleon and bis adherents. — Dif-
licalties"which these feelings threw in the way
of the new Government. — Difficulties of Louis
XVIII. in the choice of his Ministers. — Talley-
rand and Fouche are appointed to the Ministry.
— Formation of the Ministrj', and Retirement of
Chateaubriand. — The King's Proclamation from
Cambray. — His entry into Paris. — Violence of the
Royalists, and diflBculties of Louis. — Difficulty in
reff'ard to the Convocation of the Chambers, and
Debates on it. — The King issues an Ordinance,
changing the mode of Elections, of his own au-
thority. — Royal Ordinance, changing the Modes
and Rules of Election. — Disunion between the
King and the Duke d'Angouleme and Count d'Ar-
tois as to the Prefects. — The Freedom of the Press
is restored in all but the Jounials. — Reasons
which rendered the Punishment of the leading
Napoleonists necessary. — Lists of Persons to be
accused, prepared by Fouche, and sanctioned bj-
a royal Ordinance. — Ordinances regarding the
Chamber of Peers. — The Peerage is declared he-
reditary. — Arrival of the allied Sovereigns in
Paris. — Army of the Loire. — Its Submission. —
Disbanding of the Army of the Loire. — Reorgan-
ization of the Army into departmental Legions.
— Breaking up of the Museum. — Desperate state
of the Finances. — Settlements of the allied Troops
in France, and their Exactions. — Reaction in the
South. — Massacre at Marseilles. — Departure of
Marshal Brune for Paris. — He is murdered at
Avignon. — Further Massacres in the South. —
Atrocities at Is'imes and the surrounding Countrj'.
— Persecution of the Protestants by the Roman
Catholics. — Temper of France during the Elec-
tions. — Their ultra- Royalist character. — Dismissal
of Fouche from the Ministry. — Fall of Fouche, and
his Death. — Fall of Talleyrand, and his Ministry.
— Ministry of the Duke de Richelieu. — Life of the
Duke de Richelieu. — His Character. — Biography
ofM. Decazes. — DiflBculties of the Negotiations
nilL ibe allied Powers. — Exorbitant Demands of
CONTENTS.
Austria and the lesser Powers. — Treaty of Pans
— Convention of iiOth November, between the al-
lied Powers, for Exclusion of Napoleon and hia
Family from the Throne of Franco. — The Holy
Alliance, and Causes which led to it. — Terms of
the Holy Alliance. — Treaties regarding tne Ionian
Isles, a Russian Subsiiiy, and Napoleon Bona-
parte. — Rellcctions on these Treaties. — Violent
Temper and Disposition of the Chamber of Dcp
uties. — Composition and Parties in the Chambers
— The extreme Royalists and their Leaders.^
The Provincial Deputies. — The Opposition and
its Leaders. — Composition of the Chamber of
Peers. — Opening of the Chamber, and Speech of
the King. — Manner in which the Speech was re-
ceived by the Chamber. — Ditliculties at taking
the Oath of Fidelitj-. — Answer of the Chamber of
Deputies. — Law against seditious Cries. — Law
suspending individual Liberty. — Discussion on it
in the Chambers. — Vehement Discussion on the
Law against seditious Cries. — Law establishing
Courts-martial for political Offenses. — Proposal
for rendering the inferior Judges removable dur-
ing a Year. — Discussion on the Acts in the Peers.
— Answer of M. de Fontanes and M. de Brissac.
— Argument against the Law on seditious Cries.
— Speech of Chateaubriand on the Subject. — Re-
flections on the Deaths of Ney and Labedoyere.
— External Influences exerted against the Gov-
ernment — Considerations which weighed with
the Court. — Measures of the Government to give
the accused Persons the means of Escape. —
Treachery of Colonel Labedoyere. — His Arrest. —
His Trial and Condemnation. — His Death. — Trial
of Marshal Ney. — His treacherous Conduct. — His
Departure from Paris, and Arrest at Bossonis. —
His Trial before the Chamber of Peers. — His De-
fense and Condemnation. — Appeal to the Capitu-
lation of Paris. — He is found guilty, and sentenced
to Death. — His Death determined on by the King.
— His Execution. — Reflections on this Event,
and on the Duke of Wellington's share in the
Transaction. — Trial of Lavalette. — The King's
pardon is applied for in vain. — He escapes by the
aid of his Wife, and in her Dress. — Sir Robert
Wilson, Mr. Hutchinson, and Mr. Bruce enable
him to escape. — Mode in vi-hich they effect his
Escape, and their Trial. — Adventures of Murat
after the Battle of Waterloo. — He embarks, and
lands in Corsica. — His arrival at Ajaccio, and de-
scent on Naples. — The King lands. — Where he
fails, and is arrested. — He is condemned by a
Court-martial. — His Death. — Reflections on this
Event. — Death of Monton-Duvemet and General
Chartraud. — A general Amnesty, ■which is cold-
ly received by the Chamber. — Modifications with
which it is passed into a Law. — Proposals for a
new Law of Elections. — M. Vaublanc's Argrament
in favor of the ministerial Project on the Elec-
tions. — Project of the Royalists. — The Project of
the Rojalists is carried in the Deputies and re-
jected in the Peers. — The Budget. — Ministerial
Plan on the Subject. — Proposition of the Chamber
regarding the Clergj-. — Argument in favor of aa
Endowment of the Church. — Answer of the Min-
istei's, and their counter Project. — Argument of
M. Bonald against the Law of Divorce. — Changes
in the Administration. — Conspiracy of the Liberal
Party. — Outbreak, headed by Didier, at Grenoble.
— Exaggerations of General Donnadieu, and need-
less Severities. — Conspiracy in Paris. — Conspira-
cy at Lyons. — Preparations of the Government
fur a Change in the Electoral Law, and its difti
ciilties. — Speech of M. Decazes in favor of a Covp
dElat. — Adoption of these Principles _ by the
King, and Preparations for carrying them into Ex-
ecut-ion. — Ordinance of Sept. 5, 1816. — Consterna-
tion of the ultra- Royalists, and Dismissal of Cha-
teaubriand.— Great effects of this Ordinance. —
The whole Chambers were elected bj- royal Ordi-
nance. — Reflections on the Reaction of 1815,
which was forced by the Nation on the Govern
C N T E N T S.
IS
inent. — Tho greatest Iniquities of the Period were
committed by Juries. — Expedience of abolishing
entirely the Punishment of Death in purely polit-
ical Otienaes. — Banishment is its proper Punish-
ment.
CHAPTER IV.
rOMESTIC HISTORY OF ENGLAND, FROM THE COM-
MENCEMENT OF 1817 TO THE REPEAL OF THE BANK
RESTRICTION ACT IN 1819. .
Vicissitudes and ceaseless Chain of Events in hu-
man AflFairs. — Exempliticatious of this Vicissitude
in the History of Prance and England after the
H-evolution. — Consoling Features even in the Ruin
of the Old ^Vorld. — Fundamental Cause vphich
has led to Disaster in France.— What has done so
in England.— The mercantile Aristocracy pursue
Measures for their peculiar Interests. — Which, in
Ignorance, are supported by the operative Man-
ufacturers. — Reason of this frequent Disappoint-
ment of general Wishes. — Continued Distress and
Discontent in the Country. — Plan fomied of a gen-
eral Insurrection. — Meeting of Parliament, and
Attack on the Prince-Regent. — Report of the Se-
cret Committee in both Houses. — Suspension of
the Habeas Corpus Act, and passing of the Sedi-
tious Meetings Act. — Measures of Government to
suppress the Insurrection, which breaks out at
Derby. — Extension of the Suspension of the Ha-
beas Corpus Act. — B.estoration of Confidence and
improved Prospects toward the close of the Year.
— Finance Accounts of 1817, compared with 1816.
— Mr. Peel's Irish Insurrection Act. — Trial by
Jury in civil Causes in Scotland. — Its entire Fail-
ure. — Acquittal of Watson and Hone. — Reflec-
tions on this Subject. — Error at that Period in the
English Law. — Good effects of the Suspension of
the Habeas Corpus Act. — Motion of Mr. Brough-
am regarding the Trade and Manufactures of the
Country. — Establishment of Savings Banks, and
diminished severity of Punishment in criminal
Cases. — Return of Mr. Canning from Lisbon, and
Death of Mr. Ponsonby and Mr. Horner. — Mr. Hor-
ner's Life and Character. — His Character as an
Orator and political Philosopher. — Death of the
Princess Charlotte. — Universal Grief of the Nation
at this Event. — Improved Condition of the Coun-
try in the end of 1817 and Spring of 1818. — Cause
of this increased Prosperity. — Steps of the Bank
toward Cash Payments. — Argument for the re-
sumption of Cash Payments by the Opposition. — ■
Answer by the Ministers. — Bill of Indemnity for
Persons seized under the Suspension of the Ha-
beas Corpus Act. — Military and Naval forces
voted, and Revenue. — Expenditure, and Increase
of Exports, Imports, and Shipping, in 1817 and
1818. — Grant of a Million to build new Churches.
— Treaty with Spain for the abolition of the Slave
Tr.ade. — Alien Bill, and Mr. Brougham's Connnit-
tee conceniing Charities. — Efforts of Sir Samuel
Romilly to obtain a relaxation of our Criminal
Code. — Death of Sir Samuel Romilly. — His Char-
actor. — Death and Character of Lord lOUenbor-
ough. — Death of Warren Hastings and Sir Philip
Francis. — Sir .lames Mackintosh: his early Life.
— His Character as a Statesman and Writer. —
His Character as a parliamentary Speaker. —
Death and Character of Uuccn Charlotte. — Favor-
able aspect of Affairs at the opening of 1819, and
Disasters at its close. — (yomracncement of the De-
bates on tiie Currency
Bristol against the too speedy Resumption of
Cash Payments. — Its tenor. — First Speech of Mr.
Peel on the Subject. — Petition of tlie Merchants
and Bankers of London in favor of continuing the
Restriction : which is yircsented to the House
of Commons by the first Sir R. Peel. — His .Si)ccc!i
on the Occasion continued. — Arf.ninientof Mr. Peel
in favor of the Resumption of Cash Payments. —
Argatnent on the other side. — Decision of Parlia-
mcul ou the Subject. — Reflections on this Decis-
ion. — Mr. Vansittart's Finance Resolutions. — Mr
Vansittart's Finance Plan and new Taxes. — Sir
James Mackintosh's argument in support of Crim-
inal Law Reform. — Ansvi-er of Lord Castlereagh.
■ — Sir James Mackintosh's Motion is carried. — Re-
flections on this Subject. — Results of Experience
on the Subject. — What has caused the apparent
Anomaly? — True Principles on the Subject. — Clan-
destine Succors sent by the English to the South
American Insurgents. — Argument of Ministers in
favor of the Foreign Enlistment Bill. — Ansvsrer by
the Opposition. — The Succors to the Insurgents
still continue. — Reflections ou this Subject. — Vast
Extent of the aid thus afforded to the Insurgents.
— Punishment which England has received for
this Injustice. — Dreadful Losses arising from our
Interference with South America.
CHAPTER V.
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, THE ARTS, AND
MANNERS, IN GREAT BRITAIN AFTER THE PEACE.
Great Impulse given to Literature and Science after
Jie War. — Way in which War produces this ef-
fect. — Kapid Progress of Steam Navigation in
Britain, and of the Cotton Manufacture. — Prog-
ress in other branches of Manufacture. — Brilliant
Eras in Literature which generally succeed those
of great public Dangers. — Literary Character of
Sir Walter Scott. — Peculiar Character of his
Writings. — Their elevated moral Character. — The
Defects of his later Writings. — Lord Byron. — His
Merits and Defects. — His Dramas and Don Juan.
— Moore as a lyric Poet. — His Oriental turn and
satirical Verses. — Campbell : his vast and noble
Genius. — His Ijrical Poems. — Rogers' Pleasures
of Memory. — Southey: his peculiar Character. —
His Merits as a Historian and Moralist. — Words-
worth : his Character as a Writer, and great
Fame. — Parallel between him and Goethe. — Cole-
ridge : his poetic Character. — Mrs. Hemans. —
Crabbe. — Joanna Baillie. — Tennyson. — Character
of the prose Compositions of the Period. — Dugald
Stewart. — His want of original Thought. — Dr.
Brown. — Paley. — Malthus: what led to his Doc-
trines. — Great Influence and rapid spread of his
Doctrines. — His Errors, and subsequent Demon-
stration of them. — His Character as a political
Philosopher. — Ricardo, M'Culloch Senior, and
Mills. — Davy: his philosophical Discoveries. —
Herschel, Playfair, D'Israeli, Alison. — Modern
Geology: Buckland, Sedgewick, Sir Charles Ly-
ell, anil Sir David Brewster. — Rise of the learned
Reviews and lengthened Essays. — Rise of the
Edinburgh Review, Quarterly Review, and Black-
wood's Magazine. — Jeffrey. — Brougham. — Sir
James Mackintosh. — Sidney Smith. — Macaulay.
— Lockhart. — Wilson. — Change in the Style of
History. — Ilallam. — Sharon Turner and Palgrave.
— Lingard: previous Prejudices of tho Historians
of the Ref(jrmation. — His Merits and Defects as a
Historian. — Tytlor: his impartial Character. — His
Merits and Defects. — Napier. — Lord Mahon. —
Macaulay's History. — Miss Strickland. — Mitford.
— Grote. — Arnold. — The new School of Novelists.
— Miss Edgeworth. — Mr. James. — Sir Edward B.
Lytton. — His Merits as a Poet and dramatic Writ-
er. — Disraeli. — Dickens. — Thackeray and tho
Dickens School. — Miss Austin.— Mrs. Norton. —
Mr. Warren. — Carlyle. — Dr. Croly. — Hazlitt. —
Bentham. — Chalmers. — Monkton Mihies and Ay-
toun. — L. E. L., Warburton, and the Author of
Eothen. — The Fine Arts — Architecture. — Sir
Thomas Lawrence. — Turner. — Copley Fielding,
Williams, Thomson. — Grant, Pickersgill, Swintoii.
— Landsecr. — Wilkie. — Chantrey. — Flaxman. —
Marochetti. — Mrs. Siddons. — John Kenible. — Miss
O'Neil. — Kcan. — Miss Helen Faucit. — Decline of
the Drnma in England, and its Causes. — The ex.
thisive System in .Society: its Causes. — Its great
ICffect on Society. — Increasing Liberalism of the
higher Ranks. — Influence in Society of the great
CONTENTS.
Whis Ilonsos. — N\'l>u-li was wiinling on the Con-
sioalivfsulo; raus«s ol'llie UlUiriiico, und ad-
xaittit^o ol llio NViugs in tins ri'spcct.
CHAPrr.K VI.
lUSTORV OK KRAXiK KKOM TllK lOll' b'ETAT OV
«IK|-TKMB>>K 5, IHIG, TO THE CREATION OF I'EEUS
IN l^l'J.
ElTii-taof the Coup (V Etat o( 5l]i Scptombor, 181C.
— Dtinocnitir Basis on which the elective Fran-
chise was tounded. — The Elections of 1815, and
Measures taken to secure them.— Etlorts of" the
Kovalists and Liberals.— Kesult of the Elections.
— Internal government after the Coup d'Etat of
5th Seiiteinticr.- Great Distress in P'rancc in the
Winter of 181l>-17.— Opening of the Chambers.—
State of Parties in tlie Chamber of Deputies. —
Centre and Left. — Law of Elections of 5th Feb-
ruary, 1817. — Argument of the Ministers in sup-
port of the Measure. — Answer by the Royalists.
— Ii is passed. — Hellections on this Law. — Laws
on personal Freedom and the Liberty of the Press.
— Projects of Laws regarding the Liberty of the
Press and personal Freedom. — Argument against
the Law on the Liberty of the Press by the Op-
position. — Answer of the MinisteriaUsts. — Ex-
treme Scarcity, and Measures of Government in
consequence. — More liberal System in the Army.
— Concordat with Rome. — Extreme Difficulty re-
garding the Finances. — Efforts of the Emperor
Alexander and the Duke of Wellington to obviate
these Difficulties. — Convention of 11th February,
1918, for the Diminution of the Army of Occupa-
tion. — The Budget of 1817. — Law regarding Be-
ijuests to the Church. — Arguments for a proprie-
tary Clergy. — Answer of the Ministerialists. — Re-
s'ilt of the Debate. — Modification of the Ministry.
— Biography ind Characterof Count Mole. — Gou-
vion St. Cyr. — The Elections of 1817. — State of
public Opinion. — State of public Opinion, and of
the Press. — The Orleanists. — Measures of the
Session : the Law of Recruiting. — TheLaw of Re-
cruiting proposed by Government. — Argument in
support of the Project by Ministers. — Argument
on the other side by the Royalists. — The Bill is
passed into a Law. — Law regarding the Liberty
of the Press. — Expiry of the Laws against per-
sonal Freedom and the Prevotal Courts. — Failure
of the Law for establishing the new Concordat. —
The Budget. — Conclusion of an Arrangement re-
garding the Indemnities. — Aix-la-Chapelle and its
Concourse of illustrious Foreigners. — Embassa-
dors there, and Instructions of Louis to the Duke
de Richelieu. — Brilliant Concourse of Strangers
at Aix-la-Chapelle. — Conversation of Alexander
with Richelieu. — Conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-
la-Chapelle. — Secret Treaty with the Allies. —
Answer of Louis XVIIL — Secret Protocol. — Se-
cret military Protocol. — Military Arrangements.
• — Secret Royalist Memoir presented to the allied
Sovereigns at Aix-la-Chapelle. — Evacuation of
the French Territory by the Allies. — Noble Con-
duct of the Duke of Wellington on this Occasion.
— Attempted Assassination of the Duke of W\'l-
lington. — Visit of Alexander to Louis XVIIL at
Paris. — Elections of 1818. — Financial Crisis. —
Difficulties of the Duke de Richelieu. — Divisions
in the Cabinet, and break-up of the Ministry. —
Formation of the new Ministry. — Recompense
voted to the Duke de Richelieu, and declined by
him. — Measures of the new Ministers. — General
promotion of the Liberals in the civil Service. —
Movement against the Electoral Law in the Peers.
— Argument of M. Barthelcmy for a Change in the
Law of Election. — Answer on the part of the
Ministerialists. — The Proposition is carried, and
vast sensation throughout France. — Measures of
the Cabinet, and Liberals in the Chamber of Dep-
uties. — Argument in support of M. Barthelemy's
Proposal. — Argument ol the Ministers on the
other side. — Adoption of M. Barthelemy's Propo-
sition, and Defeat of Ministers on the fixing of the
financial Year. — Measures of the Ciovernment.^
Great Majority in the Chamber of Deputies for
Ministers. — Great and Lasting Results of the
Changes already made in France. — Repeated
Coups d'Etat in France since the Restoration. —
The Coups d'Etat were all on the popular side.
— Causes of this Peculiarity.
CHAPTER VII.
SPAIN AND ITALY FROM THE PEACE OF 1814 TO
THF, REVOLUTION OF 1820.
Analogy of the early History of Spain and England.
— The Colonies were not a Source of Weakness
to Spain. — Colonies are always a Benefit to the
Parent State. — Support which Colonies afford to
the Mother Country.^ — What the Colonial Policy
of the Parent State should be. — Inevitable Loss
to the Parent State from the Separation of the
Colonies. — Tyrannical Ruleof old Spainoverher
Colonies. — The Trade of Spain was all with for-
eign Manufactures. — Want of Industry in the na-
tional Character. — The Physical circumstances
of Spain favored Commerce, but not Manufac-
tures. — Effect of the long-continued Hostility with
the Moors. — Impolitic Laws of Spain in regard to
Money. — Important Effect of the Romish faith. —
Difference of the Towns and Country in respect
of Political opinion. — Disposition of the Army. —
The Church. — State of the Peasantry. — State of
the Nobility. — Huge gap in the Revenue from the
loss of the South American Colonies. — Constitu-
tion of 1812: how it was Formed. — Its extreme
Democratic tendency. — Utter unsuitableness of
the Constitution to the generality of Spain. — Uni-
versal unpopularity of the Cortes and Constitu-
tion. — Influence of the Cortes on South America.
— Situation of Portugal : effect of the Removal
of the seat of Government to Rio Janeiro. — Its
general Adoption of English Habits and Ideas.—
Character of Ferdinand VII. — Ferdinand's ar-
rival in Spain, and Treatment by the Cortes. —
Universal unpopularity of the Cortes. — Decree
of Valencia. — King's Declaration in favor of Free-
dom, and Promise to convoke a legal Cortes. —
Universal transports in Spain at this Decree, and
the King's return to Madrid. — Reflections on this
Event, and the obvious Courses which lay open
to the King. — Ferdinand's despotic Measures.
Re-establishment of the Inquisition. — Discontent
in various Quarters. — Revolt of Mina in Navarre.
— Fresh arbitrary Decree of Ferdinand. — Farther
, violent Proceedings of the King, and Porlier's
revolt. — Its Failure, and his Death. — Invasion of
France, and Retreat of the Spaniards. Fresh
tyrannical Acts of the King. — Change of Minis-
ters, and Policy at Madrid. — Restoration of the
Jesuits, and other Despotic Measures. — Double
Marriages of the Royal Families of Spain and
Portugal. — Creation of the kingdom of Brazil. — ■
Insurrection in Valencia. — Abortive Conspiracy
in Barcelona, and Death of General Lacy. — Papal
Bull regarding the Contribution by the Spanish
Church. — Treaty regarding the Queen of Etruria.
— Treaty for the Limitation of the Slave Trade.
— Miserable state of Spain : its Army and Navy.
— Extreme penury of the Finances of Spain. De-
cree, April 3, 1818. — Death of Queen Maria Isa-
bella of Spain. — Disastrous fate of the first Ex-
pedition to Lima. — Fresh Revolt at Valencia,
which is Suppressed. — Causes of the Revolt in
the Isle of Leon. — Efforts of the Cadiz Liberals
to promote it. — Insurrection at Cadiz. — The Con-
spiracy is at first arrested by d'Abisbal. — D'Abis-
bal is deprived of the (Command of theExpedition.
— Additional Measures of Severity on the part of
the Government. — Yellow Fever at Cadiz. — Sale
of Florida to the Americans. — Marriage of the
King. — Revolution attempted by Riego. — Vigor-
CONTENTS.
ous Measures adopted against the Insurgents. —
Capture ol'the Arsenal, and Expedition of Riego
into llie Interior. — Its Deleat and Failure. — Per-
ilous position of Quiroga in the Isle of Leon. —
Insurrection at Corunna, and in Navarre. — Rev-
olution at Madrid : the King accepts the Consti-
tution. — Reflections on this Revolution. — Rapid
advances of the Revolution.— Reception of the
Revolution at Barcelona, Valencia, and Cadiz. —
Massacre at Cadiz. — New Ministry at Madrid. —
First Measures of the new Government. — Estab-