rapidly advanced in wealth, industry, and popu-
lation during these eventful years ; every com-
mercial crisis which paralyzed industry, every
social struggle which excited hope, every suc-
cessful innovation which diminshed security, add-
ed to the stream of hardy and enterprising emi-
grants who crowded to its shores. New Zealand
was added to the already colossal empire of En-
gland in Oceania; and it was already apparent
that the foundations were laid in a fifth hemi-
sphere of another nation destined to rival, perhaps
eclipse, Europe itself in the career of humau im-
provement. For the first time in the history of
mankind, the course of advancement ceased to
be from East to West ; but it was not destined
to be arrested by the Rocky Mountains ; — the
mighty day of four thousand years was drawing
to its close ; but before its light was extinguished
in the Wpst, civilization had returned to the land
of its birth ; and ere its orb had set in the waves
of the Pacific, the sun of knowledge was illumin-
ating the isles of the Eastern Sea.
Great and important as wore these results of
the social convulsions of France and .,,
England in the first instance, they still groattr
sank into insignificance compared rcsultH of the
to those which followed the change Free-trade
.1 „ 1 1- , }? policy of Fr»
in the commercial policy, and the gia„d
increased stringency of the monetary
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
[(.-AP.
Ii,, '• , r.niaiii riu- »• Ill-It of 111 i>so nll-
,»uro5. f.-nn wlmli so niiali was
r- : Ml lilllo, MiM- Mitlcriiif:, roc-civC(i,
„ nt to an ••xlraoiiliimry tiiul uiipurnl-
1. ; lie onrirriM/ loiuleiu-y of ihc British
,.-. j.i 1 l.o oKricultiiral po|nil:ition, ispeciullv
!n Ir.-!nml. wcro viol.-ntiv l«rn up from tiio laiul
»,, ' ■': l.v w.K-*ii. iiiiroiiiii,' ; ft lainiiic ol
t 1 lipiH-nri-.l iiniid tlio population ot
v; . . !, riiiMirv ; and to tliis terrible, but
iranMcni, M.uri-e of Millerinjr, was supoiaikled
Ibc U^tinu discoura-ieniont Hrisin
tual cliwinK of iho market of F-nnland to their
pfi'^lucc. bv thi- inunilalion of prnin from loreiffn
vairv When the barriers raised by human rc^'-
ulations were thrown down, the eternal laws ol
nature ap|H>ared in full operation ; the old and
rioh state enn always undersell the young and
I>i«>r one in manufaetures, and is always under-
s<>M bv it in a<;rieultural produce. The fate ol
old Kume apiinreiitlv was reserved for Great
Biiiain; the harvests'of Poland, the Ukraine, and
America, beyran to prostrate agriculture in the
British Isles as eflectually as those of Sicily,
Libya, and P'.gvpl had done that of the old Pat-
limimy of iho Lesions; and after the lapse of
ri<_'hiei-n hundred years, the same effects ap-
peared. The great cities flourished, but the
country decayed ; the exportation of human be-
ings, and the importation of human food, kept up
a gainful tralTic in the seaport towns ; but it was
every day more and more gliding into the hands
of the foreigners; and while exports and imports
were constantly increasing, the mainstay of na-
tional strength, the cultivation of the soil was
rapidly declining. The effects upon the strength,
resources, and population of the empire, and the
growth of its colonial possessions were equally,
important. Europe, before the middle of the
century, beheld with astonishment Great Britain,
which, at the end of the war, had been self-sup-
porting, importing ten millions of quarters of
grain, being a full lifthof the national subsistence,
and a constant stream of three hundred thousand
emigrants annually leaving its shores. Its in-
habitants, which for four centuries had been con-
itantly increasing, declined a million in the five
years from 184G to IS50 in the two islands, and
two i^illion in Ireland, taken separately; three
millions of quarters of wheat ceased to be raised
in the British Islands ; — but the foundation of a
vast empire were laid in the Transatlantic and
Australian wilds; and the annual addition of
three hur.dred thousand souls to the European
jKipulation of the New World, by immigration
alone, bad come almost to double the already
marvelous rapidity of American increase.
While this vast transferrenee of the Anglo-
Saxon and Celtic population to the
embryo states of America and Aus-
tralia wa.s going forward, the United
States of America were rapidly in-
creasing in numbers and in extent
of territory. The usual and fearful
II.
*■»»« men-
Hon of ttie
fnitcd
Klatra of
Anwrnca.
ambition of republican states there appeared in
more than its usual proportions. During ten
years, from 1%40 to 1%.30, the inhabitants of the
United States increased six millions : they had
grown from eighteen to twenty-four millions
n,SOO,000 square miles. A territory nine times
the size of old France was added to the devour-
ing Republic in ten years. The conquests of
Rome in ancient, of the English in India in
modern times, afford no parallel instance of rapid
and unbroken increase. Every thing indicates
that a vast migration of the human species is
going forward, and the family of Japhet in the
cxiurse of being transferred from its native to it;
destined seats. To this prodigious movement
it is hard to say whether the disappointed energy
of democratic vigor in Europe, or the insatiable
spirit of Republican ambition in America, has
most contributed ; for the first overcame all ihft
attachments of home, and all the endearraenti
of kindred in a large — and that the most ener
getic — portion of the people in the Old World;
while the latter has prepared for their reception
ample seats — in which a kindred tongue and
institutions prevail — in the New.
While this vast and unexampled exodus of the
Anglo-Saxon race, across a wider jg
ocean than the Red Sea, and to a vast increase
greater promised land than that of of Russia dur-
Canaan, was going forward, a cor- ing.^he same
,'. ^ I • . period,
responding, and, m some respects,
still more marvelous increase of the Sclavonic
race in the Muscovite dominions took place.
The immense dominions and formidable power
of the Czar, which had received so vast an
addition from the successful termination of the
contest with Napoleon, was scarcely less aug-
mented by the events of the long peace which
followed. The inhuman cruelty with which the
Turks prosecuted the war with the Greeks
awakened the sympathies of the Christian world ■
governments were impelled by their subjects
into a crusade against the Crescent; and the
battle of Navarino, which, for the first time in
history, beheld the flags of England, France,
and Russia side by side, at once ruined the
Ottoman navy, and reft the most important prov-
inces of Greece from the dominions of Turkey.
The inconceivable infatuation of the Turks, and
their characteristic ignorance of the strength of
the enemy whom they provoked, impelled thera
soon after into a war with Russia; and then the
immeasurable superiority whixjh the Cross had
now acquired over the Crescent at once appeared.
Varna, the scene of the bloody defeat of the
French chivalry by the Janizaries of Bajazet,
yielded to the scientific approaches of the Rus-
sians ; the bastions of Erivan to the firm assault
of Paskewitch ; the barrier, hitherto insurmount-
able, of the Balkan, was passed by Diebitch;
Adrianople fell ; and the anxious intervention
of the other European powers alone prevented
the entire subjugation of Turkey, and the entry
of the INIuscovite battalions through the breach
made by the cannon of Mahomet in the walls
of Constantinople.
Great as were these results to the growth of
Russia of the forced and long-con-
tinued pacification of W^estern Eu- continued
rope, still more important were crease of Rus-
those which followed its intestine sia from tlia
convulsions. Every throe of the ^/7^^}J'T/
, .. , 1 . T^ of 1630 ana
revolutionary earthquake in France is48.
has tended to her ultimate advant-
But the increase of its territory was still more j age, and been attended by a great accession
extraordinary : it had been extended, during the I of territory or augmentation oi nifluecce. The
»anie period, from somewhat above 2,000,000 to , Revolution of 17S9, in its ultimate effeo s nroneh^
Chap. I.]
ir IS TORY OF EUROPE.
jhe Cossaoks to Paris ; that of 1830 extinguished
the last remains ol' Polish nationality, and e;-tab-
lished the Muscovites in a lasting way a.i the
banks of the Vistula. The revolt of Ibi^him
Pacha, and the victory of Koniah, which brought
the Ottoman empire to the verge of destruction,
advanced the Russian battalions to the shores
of Scutari — and thus averted the subjugation of
the Porte by a rebellious vassal, only by surren-
dering the keys of the Dardanelles to the Czar,
and converting the Black Sea into a Russian
lake. Greater still were the results of the
French Revolution of 1848 to the moral influ-
ence, and. through it, to the real power of Rus-
sia. Germany, torn by revolutionary passions,
was soon brought into the most deplorable state
of anarchy; Austria, distracted at once by a
Bohemian, Italian, and Hungarian revolt, was
within a hair-breadth of destruction; and the
presence of 150,000 Russians on the Hungarian
plains alone determined the Magyar contest in
favor of Austria. Immense was the addition
which this decisive move made to the influence
of Russia ; no chafge of the Old Guard of Na-
poleon at the close of the day was ever more
triumphant. Russia now boasts of 60,000,000
of men within her dominions ; her territories
embrace an eighth of the habitable globe; and
her influence is paramount from the wall of
China to the banks of the Rhine.
Great as the acquisitions of the Muscovite
14. pov^'cr have been during the last
Simultaneous thirty years, they have almost been
conquestsof rivaled by those of the British in
Ihe English in ^ ,. n-r i *. u r • i
India, and India. Ihe latter have lairly out-
their origin in stripped every thing in this age of
necessity. wonders; a parallel will in vain be
sought for them in the whole annals of the world.
They do not resemble (he conquests of the
Romans in ancient, or of the Russians in
modern times ; they were not the result of the
lust of conquest steadily and perseveringly ap-
plied to general subjugation, or the passions of
democracy finding their natural vent in foreign
conquest. As little were they the offspring of
a vehement and turbulent spirit, similar to that
which carried the French eagles to Vienna and
the Kremlin. The disposition of the Anglo-
Saxons, practical, gain-seeking, and shunning
wars as an interruption of their profits, was a
perpetual cheek to any such disposition — their
immense distance from the scene of action on
the plains of Hindostan, an effectual bar to its
indulgence. India was not governed by a race
of warlike sovereigns eager for conquest, covet-
ous of glory; but by a company of pacific mer-
chants, intent only on the augmentation of their
profits and the diminution of their expense.
Their great cause of complaint against the Gov-
ernors-General, to whom was successively in-
trusted the direction of their vast dominions, has
been that they were too prone to del'ensive pre-
parations; that they did not sufliciently study
the increase of these profits, or the saving of that
expenditure. War was constantly forced upon
them as a measure of necessity ; repeated coali-
tjons of the native sovereigns compelled them
lo draw the sword to prevent their expulsion
from the peninsula. Conquest was the con-
dition of existence.
Yet such was the vigor of the Anglo-Saxon
race and the energj- with which the succes-
sive contests were maintained by the diminutive
force at the disposal of the Com- jj
pany, that marvelous beyond all ex- Their great
ample were the victories which they frequency am'
gained, and the conquests which ^'''^"'*
they achieved. The long period of Europeat
peace which followed the battle of Waterloo,
was any thing but one of repose in India. It
beheld successively the final war with, and sub-
jugation of, the Mahrattas by the genius of Lord
Hastings, the overthrow of the Pindaree horse-
men, the difficult subjugatio.** of the Ghoorka
mountaineers; the storming of Bhurtpore, the
taming of "the giant strength of Ava;" the
conquest of Cabul, and fearful horrors of the
Coord Cabul retreat ; the subsequent gallant
recovery of its capital ; the conquest of Soinde
and reduction of Gwalior ; the wars with the
Sikhs, the desperate passage of arms at Feroze-
shah, and final triumphs of Sobraon and Goojerat.
Nor was it in the peninsula of Hindostan alone
that the strength of the British, at length fairly
aroused, was exerted; the vast empire of China
was wrestled with at the very moment when the
strength of the East was engaged in the
Affghanistan expedition ; and the world, which
was anxiously expecting the fall of the much-
envied British empire in India, beheld with
astonishment, in the same Delhi Gazette, the
announcement of the second capture of Cabul
in Ihe heart of Asia, and the dictating of a glo-
rious peace to the Chinese under the walls of
Nankin.
While successes so great and bewildering
were attending the arms of eivili- jg,
zation in the remote parts of the Revolution oi
earth, a great and most disastrous ^^'^^ '" Pans,
convulsion was preparing in its heart. Paris, as
in every age, was the centre of impulsion to the
whole civilized world. Louis Philippe had a
very difficult game to play, and he long played it
with success ; but no human ability could, with
the disposition of the people, permanently main-
tain the government of the country. He aimed
at being the Napoleon of peace ; and his great
predecessor knew better than any one, and has
said oftener, that he himself would have failed
in the attempt. He owed his elevation to revo-
lution ; and he had the difficult, if not impossible,
task to perform, without foreign war, of coerc-
ing its passions. Hardly was he seated on the
throne, when he felt the necessity in deeds, if
not in words, of disclaiming his origin. His
whole reign was a continued painful and perilous
conflict with the power which had created him,
and at length he sank in the struggle. He had
not the means of maintaining the conflict. A
successful usurper, he could not appeal to tradi-
tionary influences; a revolutionary monarch, he
was compelled to coerce the passions of revolu-
tion; a military chief, he was obliged to restrain
the passions of the soldiers. They demanded
war, and he was constrained to preserve peacf ;
they sighed for plunder, and he could only meet
them with economy ; they panted for glory, and
his policy retained them in obscurity.
Political influence — in other words, corruptioa
— was the only means left of car-
rying on the government, and that „ ^'^' , ,
■ CftusuM of ilic
state engine was worked with great fan of Louis
industry, and for a time with great Pliilippo.
success. But although gratificution
ITISTOKY or EUROPE.
[Cu
la ibe «€• fi>li |v»N>i«ii>s must nlwnys, in the long ports of a iicoplo incapable ^f exer
run Ik« \\\f main lountliition of "oveinnn'iit, men! powers, iinil unuble to delcnd ts rifrht
exercisinc its
• ro not oiitiiolv. and lor over, novniud by their
»nt!uciu-e. "O'cst rimajiinalioii." said iNapo-
looii. -ipie domino lo monde.' All nations, and
moot of nil the French, oeeasionaily roipiirc ali-
ment to the i>as»ions ; and no dyn:isly will long
maintain its sway over them, which docs not
fietjuently gratify their i-uliiig di.-iH).viiions. Na-
poleon was so popular because he at once con-
kwhed their interests and gratilied their passions :
Louis rhilip()c the reverse, because he attended
only to their interests. Great as was his influ-
rnce, nnUiunded his patronage, immense his re-
venue, it vet fell short of the wants of his needy
Still more serious and forniidalde were the
convulsions in Germany; for theie ,„
were men inspired with the Teu- Extreme vio
tonic love of freedom, and wielding icn-ie of the
the arms which so long had been Revolution ii
, ,, , , "7. 7, Germany,
victorious in the fields ol i^uropean
fame. So violent were the shocks of the revo
lutionary earthquake in the Fatherland, lliat the
entire disruption of society and ruin ol' the na-
tional independence seemed to be threatened bj(
its elfects. Government was overturned after i
violent contest in Berlin. It fell almost withouf
a struggle, from the pusillanimity of its mem
pjHirters ; he experienced ere long the truth : hers, in Vienna. The Prussians, especially ii
of "the well-known saying, that every olTice
given away made one ungrateful and three dis-
contented. The immediate cause of his fall, in
Februan,-, IS-IS, was the pusillanimity of his
lamily, who declined to head his troops, and
the weakness of his counselors, who counseled
submission in presence of danger ; but its re-
mote causes were of much older date and wider
extent. Government, to be lasting, must be
lounded either on traditionary influences, the
gratiliealion of new interests and passions, or
the force of arms ; and that one which has not
the first will do well to rest, as soon as possible,
on the two last.
Disastrous beyond all precedent, or what
even could have been conceived,
raiamiioM were the efTeets of this new revo-
cirecw of f lie luiion in Paris on the whole Conti-
Ri volution of nent ; and a very long period must
roTc "* elapse before they are obviated.
The spectacle of a government es-
teemed one of the strongest in Europe, and a
dynasty which promised to be of lasting dura-
lion, overturned almost without resistance by an
urban tumult, roused the revolutionary party
every where to a perfect pitch of frenzy. A
universal liberation from government, aiid re-
straint of any kind, was expected, and for a
time attained, by the people in the principal
Continental states, when a republic was again
proclaimed in France; and the people, strong
in their newly-acquired rights of universal suf-
frage, were seen electing a National Assembly,
'o whom the destinies of the country were to be
intrusted. The etfect was instantaneous and
universal ; the shock of the moral earthquake
the great towns, entered, with the characteris-
tic ardor of their disposition, into the career ol
revolution ; universal siiHVage was every where
proclaimed — national guards established. The
lesser states on the Rhine all followed the ex-
ample of Berlin ; and an assembly of delegates,
from every part of the Fatherland, at Frankfort,
seemed to realize lor a brief period the dream
of German unity and independence. But while
the enthusiasts on the Rhine were speculating
on the independence of their country, the en-
thusiasts in Vienna and Hungary were taking
the most effectual steps to destroy it. A fright-
ful civil war ensued in all the Austrian prov-
inces, and soon acquired such strength as threat-
ened to tear in pieces the whole of its vast do-
minions. No sooner was the central authority iii
Vienna overturned, than rebellion broke out in
all the provinces. The Sclavonians revolted in
Bohemia, the Lombards in Italy, the Magyars
in Hungary; the close vicinity of a powerful
Russian force alone restrained the Poles in Gai-
licia. Worse, even, because more widely felt
than the passions of democracy, the animosi-
ties of R.vcE burst forth with fearful violence in
Eastern Europe. The standard of Gbrgei in
Hungary — whom the Austrians, distracted by
civil war in all their provinces, were unable to
subdue — soon attracted a large part of the in-
dignant Poles, and nearly the whole of the war-
like Magyar.^, to the field of battle on the banks
of the Danube. Not a hope seemed to remain
for the great and distracted Austrian empire.
Chaos had returned ; society seemed resolved
into its original elements ; and the chief bulwark
of Europe against Muscovite domination ap-
was felt in every part of Europe. Italy was i peared on the point of being broken up into
immediately in a blaze; Piedmont joined the I several separate states, actuated by the most
revolutionary crusade ; and the Austrian forces, I violent hatred at each other, and alike incapable,
expelled from Milan, were glad to seek an asy- singly or together, of niakins head against the
lum Ijchind the Mincio. Venice threw off the vast and centralized power of Russia.
German yoke, and proclaimed again the inde- The first successful stand against the deluge
j>endence of St. Mark ; the Pope was driven of Revolution was made in Great 20.
from Rome ; the Bourbons in Naples were Britain ; and there it was withstood, Successfnl
f^ved from destruction only by the fidelity of not by the bayonets of the soldiers, ^}^^^ against
ihcir Swiss Guards;— Sicily was severed from j but by the batons of the citizens. lilfnan^^'pirU
their dominion ; and all Italy, from the extremity The lOlh of April was the Waterloo in England
ol Calabria to the foot of the Alps, was arrav-
ing its forces against constituted authority, and
ill opposition to the sway of the Trannontane go-
vernments. The ardent and enthusiastic were
every where in transports, and predicted the
resurrection of a great and united Roman re-
public from the courage of modern patriotism ;
the learned and experienced anticipated nothing
but luin to the cause of freedom from the trans-
of Chartist rebellion in England ; — ^^^ France,
a memorable proof that the institutions of a free
people, suited to their wants, and in harmony
vvith their dispositions, can, in such felicitous
circumstances, oppose a more successful barrier
to social dangers than the most powerful mili-
tary force at the command of a des}>otic chief.
Rebellion, as usual when England is in dis-
tress, broke out in irclana i-u! .' '
Chap. I.]
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
in ridicule, and revealed at once the intrratitude
and impotence of the Celtic race in the Emerald
Isle. I5ut a far more serious awd bloody con-
flict awaited the cause of order in the streets of
x'aris; and society there narrowly escaped the
restoration of the Reign of Terror and the gov-
ernment of Robespierre. As usual in civil con-
vulsions, the leaders of the first successful revolt
soon became insupportable to their infuriated
follcwers : a second 10th August followed, and
that much more quickly than on the first occa-
sion ; — but it was met by very ditierent oppo-
nents. Cavaignac and the army were not so
easily beat down as Louis, deserted by all the
world but his faithful Swiss Guards. The con-
test was long and bloody, and, for a time, it
seemed more than doubtful to which side victoiy
would incline ; but at length the cause of order
prevailed. The authority of the Assembly, how-
ever, was not established till above a hundred
barricades had been carried at the point of the
bayonet, several thousands of the insurgents
slain, and eleven thousand sentenced to trans-
portation by the courts-martial of the victorious
soldiers.
Less violent in the outset, but more disastrous
21 _ far in the end, were the means by
Restoration which Austria was brought through
olmilitary the throes of her revolutionary con-
powerinAus- ^uisjon. It was the army, and the
army alone, which in the last extrem-
ity saved the state; but, unhappily, it was not
the national army alone which achieved the
deliverance. So violent were the passions by
which the country was torn, so great the power
of the rival races and nations which contended
for its mastery, that the unaided strength of the
monarchy was unequal to the task of subduing
them. In Prague, indeed, the firmness of Win-
dischgratz extinguished the revolt; in Italy the
consummate talents of Radetsky restored victory
to the Imperial standards, and drove the Pied-
montese to a disgraceful peace ; and, in the
heart of the monarchy, Vienna, after a fierce
struggle was regained by the united arms of the
Bohemians and Croatians. But in Hungary the
Magyars were not so easily overcome. Such
was the valor of that warlike race, and such the
military talents of their chiefs, that, although
not numbering more than a third of the popula-
tion of Hungary, and an eighth of that of the
whole ■monarchy, it was found impracticable to
subdue them without external aid. The Rus-
sians, as a matter of necessity, were called in to
prevent the second capture of Vienna; a hundred
and fifty thousand Muscovites ere long appeared
on the Hungarian plains ; — numbers triumphed