and that their march toward Constantinople,
conquering and to conquer, was destined to be
not permanently arrested.
But the great and lasting acquisition of Russia,
from the results of the w^ar, was that 3.
oftheGRAXD-DUCHY OF Warsaw. This Important
important territory, which brings the acquisition
„ i . , ^ ' '.,, . ° olKussiain
Russian outposts within a eompara- the grand-
tively short distance of both Vienna duchy of
and Berlin, and renders the influence Warsaw,
of its diplomacy irresistible in eastern Europe,
was virtually annexed to Russia by the treaty
of Vienna in 1815; for although, by the stren-
uous efforts of Lord Castlereagh and M. Talley-
rand, its immediate incorporation with the do-
minions of the Czar was prevented, yet this was
done only by its establishment as a state nom-
inally independent, but really part of his vast
territories. The grand-duchy of Warsaw was
erected into a separate state, but the Emperor
Alexander was at its head; his brother, the
Grand Duke Constantine, was his viceroy, and
Russian influence was predominant in its coun-
cils. A constitutional monarchy, and the fonu
at least of representative institutions, were, by
the strenuous efforts of France and England,
established at Warsaw; but it was the form
onl}-. National habits and character proved
stronger, as is ever the case, than diplomatic
changes; freedom was found to be unavailing
to a nation when it was conferred, not by do-
mestic effort, but by foreign intervention ; and
the prosperity communicated to the Poles by
the vigor of Russian rule, and the organization of
Russian power, proved only an addition to the
strength of Russia, when, after an unsuccessful
and ill-judged revolt, the grand-duchy was for-
mally incorporated with her dominions.
The grand-duchy of Warsaw, which the
treat\^ of Vienna in this manner handed over
to Russia, contained, in 184G, 4,865.0U0 inhab-
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
1815.]
itants; it extends over 47,000 square geograph-
. ical miles (about half more than Ire-
Statisticsof land), the people being thinly scat-
ihe grand- tered over it, at the rate of 100 to the
duchy of ^jjg square mile ; and the land under
cultivation •within its limits amounts
to 5,444,000 dessiatines, or 14,000,000 English
acres, being at the rate only of 1.12 dessiatine
(three acres) to each inhabitant.* As the soil
is generally rich, every where level, and for the
most part capable of yielding the finest wheaten
crops, it is evident that the inhabitants might
be five times their present amount, not only
without any diminution, but with a great and
durable increase in their comfort and well-being,
jiut the character of the Poles, like that of the
Celts, ardent, enthusiastic, and daring, but gay,
\olatile, and insouciant, had rendered these gifts
of nature of little avail, and retained the nation
iu a state of internal poverty and external weak-
ness, Mhen the means' of attaining the reverse
of both were within their power. Great part
of tiie country was overshadowed by dark for-
ests of fir; vast swamps extended along the
margin of the rivers, and formed morasses and
1 Tfi'ob. lakes in the interior, which chilled
Etudes sur the atmosphere around; and even
hi Kussie, -where cultivation had crept into the
1. Ill, 118 ; •, , •. • 1 * 1 1
llaxthau- Wilderness, it was in such a rude and
sen, Stat, imperfect manner as bespoke rather
de la Riis- the weakness of savage than the
«ie, 1. __/. pQ-^^.gpg Qf civilized man.'
The new kingdom of Poland, on the throne
5. of which the Emperor of Russia was
Establish- placed, was proclaimed at Warsaw on
kin"dom of ^''^ ^*^^^ '^"°®' ^^^^- ^^ consisted of
Poland. t'^6 grand-duchy of Warsaw, as it ex-
June 20, isted iu the time of Napoleon, with
l'**^- the exception of the city and little
territory of Cracow, which was erected into a
separate republic, the salt mines of Wicleiza,
which were ceded to Austria, and the grand-
duchy of Posen, which was set apart to Prussia,
titill the portion left for Russia was very great,
and formed an immense addition to its already
colossal strength ; for it brought its dominions
almost into the centre of Europe, and left the
ca])itals of Austria and Prussia within ten days'
march of its frontiers, without a fortified town
or defensible frontier between. It added, too,
the military strength of a warlike race, cele-
brated in every age for their heroic exploits, to
the Russian standards — men whom Napoleon
lias characterized as those of all Europe who
most readily become soldiers. They formed at
this time a willing and valuable addition to the
Muscovite legions, for the Poles clung to this
little kingdom, as a nucleus from which might
arise the restoration of tlieir lost nationality;
and the benevolent dispositions and known j)ar-
tiaiity for Poland of the Emperor Alexander in-
spired the warmest hopes that this long-wished-
for result might take place. The strength and
vigor which were ere long communicated to the
new kingdom by the Russian administration,
caused the country rapidly to prosper in the
most remarkable manner in all its material in-
terests; while tlie shadow, at least, of repre-
235
* ThB Ru.ssian dessiatine, liy which nil their land i.s
measured, contains .'21 atves nearly, the acre being .37 of
a dcss:atinu.
sentative institutions, which was obtained for
it by the efforts of Lord Castlereagh i Malte
at the Congress of Vienna, flatter- Brun.Geog.
ed the secret hope that, with its Fji'^'jO'''^
lost nationality, the much-loved lib- uuiv. des
erties of Poland might one day be Ilonimes
restored.' Viv. ii.227.
The Grand Duke Coxstantine, who was
placed as viceroy at the head of the
government of this infant kingdom, Bjocraphy
was one of those strange and bizarre oi the
characters which occur but seldom in
history, and can be produced only by ^tant'^jiJe""'
a temporary, and, in some degree, for-
tuitous blending of the dispositions of various
races, and the feelings produced by different
states of societ}-. The second son of the Em.
peror Paul I. and the celebrated Empress Cath-
erine, he was born on the 8th May, 1770, and
christened Constantine, from the design of that
aspiring potentate to place him on the throne
of Constantinople, and restore the Byzantine
empire, as an appanage of the imperial house
of Russia. He was married on 2Cth February,
1796, to a princess of the house of Saxe-Coburg ;
but the marriage proved unfortunate, and was
soon followed by a separation. The savage
manners and despotic inclinations of the Grand
Duke were speedily felt as insupportable by a
princess accustomed to the polished and con-
siderate manners of European society.* He
soon after entered on the career of arms, and in
it from the very first he greatly distinguished
himself. His liiL-t essay in real warfare was in
1799, under Suwanoff, on the banks of the Po,
where his daring character and headlong valor
were very conspicuous. Subsequently he joined
the allied army, at the head of his splendid reg-
iment of cuirassiers, in the plains of Moravia in
1805; and by tlie glorious charges, in which
he defeated tiie best regiments of the imperial
guard, and captured an eagle, had all but
changed the face of Europe on the field of Aus-
terlitz.^ Subsequently he arrested 2 nist. of
the triumphant march of Napoleon at Europe, c.
Eylau, and iieai'ly closed his career ^l- M 130,
amidst the snows of Poland. He
went through the whole campaigns of 1812,
ISlo, and 1814 in Russia, Germany, and France,
and attended the victorious march of his coun-
trymen from Moscow to Paris. f He did not
accom})any them to London, but attended the
Congress of Vienna, from whence he 3 niog. des
proceeded to take possession of his llo'";, ^'v.
new kingdom in .luiie, 181.').^ "• "'â–
His character and habits but ill-qualified him
for the task. IJorn on the confines 7.
of Europe and Asia, inheriting the Ilis char-
Tartar blood, warmed by the fSlavo- ""^"''"â–
nian temperament, his Oriental character liad
never yielded to the manners or civilization of
Europe. He was an emblem of the nations of
which he was so nearly the head: refineniei.t
had never penetrated the interior — Ihe deli-
cacy and graces of i)olished manners were on
Ihe surface only. Ilis countenance, which was
* The author has been infonncul by a lady, to whom the
Orand Duchess herself recounted it, that, in noiiic oI' his
fits of passion, he used In make her rise durjii}; tlie iii^ht,
and lie across the Ibresliohl iilllii' door oltheir iipiirlriii'iit '
t The author nut hiiii rrc(jui'iilly then^ 111 IM I, :iiiil tbo
chief traits in this description are talieii from hi.s ov. 11 ob-
servation.
236
II I s TO 11 Y OF i:f norr.
[Chap. VIII.
etronply dinractoriziHl bv tlio Turtar fentiiros,
ami sovoroiv iiuirkod by tlio stnalljiux, was ill-
favoroil aiul untrainlv; but his inaiiiiors woi'c
|H>lislioil ill sooietv, niul no tuie, when so in-
cliiicii, oouKl be iiioro winiiiiit; nml nttractivc.
lint the real disposition was widoly dirteront;
lie had nothiiiii mild or pontle in his leinpcia-
nient. lie livalod Kiohartl Ou'iir-de-Lion in his
valor in the field, but he sni-passed hiui also in
the vehenienee with which lie ruled the cabinet,
and the acts of tyranny by which both his
public administration and private life were
characterized. Violent, capricious, and irritable,
he could never brook contradiction, and when in-
flamed by passion, indulged his vehement dis-
position by frightful and disgraceful acts of
cruelty. He was an imtamcd savage, armed
with the power and animated by the imperious
disposition of an Eastern sultan, imperfectly
vailed over by the chivalrous manners of modern
Europe. Yet was the savage not destitute of
generous sentiments; he could occasionally do
noble things ; and though the discipline he main-
tained in his troops was extremely severe, yet
it was redeemed, and their affections won, by
frequent acts of kindness. The close of his pub-
lie career was very remarkable, and afforded
a memorable proof of what is the real van-
quisher of the savage dispositions of man, and
how love can melt even the most ferocious bo-
soms. 8uch was the influence which a Polish
lad}" of charming and fascinating manners ac-
quired over him, that he sacrificed for her the
most splendid prospects which the world could
ofl'er; and it will appear in the sequel that
1 pio„ jjgg "all for love, or the world well lost,"
IIom.''viv. was, to the astonishment of Europe,
ii. 227,228; realized by an Oriental prince, the
knowledge ^^^^ ^° ^^^ greatest empire in Chris-
tendom.'
As might have been expected from a prince
S. of such a character and habits, his
His first chief attention was concentrated on
w^nis'tra^-'^' '"''^ army. On the 11th December,
tion, and 1815, when the annexation of Poland
training of to the Russian crown was seriously
tile army, contested in the Congress of Vienna,
Constantine addressed to it an animated pro-
clamation, in which he recounted with truth
and deserved pride their glorious deeds in arms,
their fidelity in misfortune, their inextinguish-
able love of their country, and called on them
to rally round the emperor as its only bulwark.*
* 'â– Reunissez-vous autour de voire drapeau ; armez vos
bras pour defendre voire Patrie, et pour mainlenir son
existence politique. Pendant que I'Einpereur Alexandre
prepare Iheureux avenir de voire pays, rnonlrez-vous
preisa .soutenir ses nobles elTorts. Les memes chefs qui,
depuis vingl ans, vous onl conduits sur le chemin de la
gloire, sauront vous ramener I'Empereur apprecier voire
vaicur. Au milieu du desaslre d'une guerre funeste, il a
vu voire honneur survivre a des evenemenls qui ne d6-
pendaienl pas de vous. De hauls fails d'armes vous ont
distingues dans une lutte dont le but souvent vous etail
ctranger ; a present que vos efforts ne seront consacres
qu' a la Patrie, vous serez invincibles. Soldats et guerriers
de touies les arrnes, donnez les premiers fexernple de
I'ordre qui doit regner chez tous vos compatriotes. De-
vouemenl sans bornes envers I'Empereur, qui ne veut que
le bien de voire Palrie, amour pour son auguste personiie,
obeissance, concorde : voila le moyen d'assurer la pros-
perile de voire pays, qui se trouve sous la puissanle
Egide de I'Empereur. C'est par la que vous arriverez a
I'heureuse situation, que d'auires peuvent vous proiriellre,
mais que lui seul peut vous procurer. Sa puissance et
ses vertus vous en sonl garanl." — Biographic des Hommes
Vivantx, ii. 229.
On the '24;h of the .'â– ame month ho pre- ^
■11. 1 . • 1- , 1 o 1. Dec. 24.
sided at a solenin iiieitiiig ot thehenate,
at which the new constitution was read, and
]iroclaimed with great solemnity. The pros-
pect of the restoration of their countrj', of its
resuming its place in the family of Europe, the
known affection with which the emperor re-
garded Poland, and the generous deeds toward
it by which his reign had already been signal-
ized, the hope ()f the restoration of their liber-
ties by means of the constitution which had
been promulgated, difl'used a universal enchant-
ment, and for a brief season made the I'oles
forget the long-continued misfortunes i Bio„ ^es
of which their country had been the IIoiii? Viv.
theatre. » »• 228.
Great material prosperity followed the junc-
tion of the Polish and Russian crowns, g
and vast advantage to both countries. Great ad-
Tbe veiy cessation of the jealousy and vantage lo
hostility which had so long subsisted from'iis
between them, and the opening of union with
the vast market of Mu.?covy to Polish Russia,
industr}', was of itself an immense advantage.
Add to this the termination of the long anarchy
of Polish democracy, and the substitution oV
the steady rule of a regular government, which,
however despotic, was strong, uniform, and con-
sistent, for the ceaseless dissensions and sense-
less jealousies of their stormy national assem-
blies. Warsaw, which, in 1797, contained only
66,572 inhabitants, and at the accession of
Alexander less than 80,000, rapidly increased
in splendor and opulence, and in 1842 number-
ed 140,000 souls. The industry of the country
made sensible progress with the preservation
of peace, and the steady market opened for
agricultural produce both in the warehouses
of Dantzie and in the consumption of the capital.
Its revenue had augmented before 1830 by more
than a third, and the seeds even of manufactur-
ing prosperity had begun to germinate on its
soil. The entire kingdom, Avhieh in 1815 could
number only a hundred weaving looms, had
come, in 1830, to contain six thousand, which
manufactured annually seven million yards of
cloth. All other rude fabrics had advanced in
a similar proportion; but capital was still
chiefly accumulated in the hands of the Jews,
who amounted in Warsaw alone to twenty-
seven thousand, and were to be found at the
head of nearly all the industrial establishments
in the kingdom. Kor was public instruction
neglected ; on the contrary, it was extended in
the most remarkable manner during the pacific
rule of the Russian emperor. Schools of every
description had been established at Warsaw,
and in various parts of the kingdom, which
were crowded by the ardent youth of that im-
passioned land. The scholars, who were only
a few hundreds in 1815, had risen in s Malte
the capital alone in 1830 to 3700, and Brun,
over the whole kingdom to 35,000, ^^°^f ^,.
whichwasin the proportion of 1 to 130 528. 530-
souls, while in the neighboring realm Tegobor-
of Russia it was only 1 to 280.' ^'^'' '• ^-2-
But as it was to the military force of this
new kingdom that the attention of
the viceroy and the government was Great in-
chiefly directed, so it was there that crease of
the most rapid changes and the most its niiliiarj
extraordinary progress took place, ^"'^"o' '•
1815.J
HISTORY OF EUROPE.
23";
It would pass for incredible, were it not attested
by undoubted evidence, and accounted for b}'
the singular aptitude of the Poles for military
instruction, and the extraordinary skill of the
Russians in military organization. The Polish
arnij', though it never exceeded forty thousand
men — less tlian one in a hundred of the entire
j)()pnlation — soon became, under the tuition of
Constantine, one of the most formidable in
Europe, from its incomparable state of disci-
])line and equipment. The viceroy was ex-
tremelj^ anxious on this subject, and rigorous
to a fault in exacting the most ceaseless atten-
tion to the smallest minutiffi of dress and disci-
pline. Though second to none in the hardi-
hood with which he headed his chivalrous
guards in a charge, it was on the trifling splen-
lie often said, after seeing his guards defile be-
liim, " What a pity it is to go to war! — it dirties
their dress; it spoils soldiers." To such a de-
gree of perfection did he bring them in these
respects, that when, in October, 1816, the Em-
jteror Alexander passed them in review at
AVarsaw, he was so struck with their martial
air, exact discipline, and splendid appearance,
that he embraced his brother several times in
their presence. But they were not mere carpet
knights who thus charmed the greatest milita-
ry monarch in the world by their appearance:
none showed, when the hour of trial arrived,
that they were more equal to the duties and
penetrated with the spirit of real soldiers.
When the disastrous revolt of 1830 arrived,
and the little kingdom of Poland strove to de-
tach itself from its colossal neighbor, its for-
tresses of Modlia and Zamose were iu such a
state of defense, and its army so efiicient, that
for ten months it maintained a doubtful conflict
with its gigantic foe, and in the end was only
subdued by the aid of Prussia' — a
memorable instance of devoted though
mistaken patriotism, and of the glori-
ous destiny which awaited Poland, if
its sons had had the sense to establish
a stable government, and their heroic
courage and military spirit had not been ren-
dered nugatory by the insane divisions and
democratic selfishness of former times.
The powers of Avestern Europe acted natu-
rally and in a liberal spirit in stipu-
lating, for the fragment of the Polish
nation embraced in the new kingdom,
constitutional privileges and a repre-
sentative government, and the Em-
peror Alexander not less so ia con-
ceding them. But they proved worse than
useless in practice; and their entire failure
adds another to the numerous instances wiiich
history aff'ords of the extreme danger of trans-
])lanting institutions suitable to one race and
state of society to men inheriting a dill'erent
blood, and in a different stage of puHtical exist-
ence. JS'ot less stormy and uniuiinagcable by
ordinary means, or any appeals to reason, than
their ancient diets, wiieie eighty thousand
horsemen discussed the afl'airs of utate in the
plains of Volo, the new Assembly united to it
the selfishness, interested motives, and corrup-
tion which are the gangrenes of the represent-
a;ivf system, even in the most highly-advanced
and polished societies. Tiiey \\v\c seldom co;i-
' Diog. des
Horn. Viv.
ii, 228 ,•
Malte
IJnin, vi.
5:iJ, 530.
Failure of
llie repre-
sentative
system in
I'olanil.
voked, and, when assembled, more than once
abruptly dissolved. Poland flourished under
the Russian rule prior to the calamitous revolt
in 1830, not in consequence of her represent-
atives, but ill spite of them. IS'o salutary or
useful measures are to be traced to their influ-
ence; and they drew forth from no common
man, the Emperor Kicholas, the following, it is
to be feared, as applied to that people, just
condemnation : " I understand a republic ; it is
a clear and sincere government, or at least it
may be so: I understand an absolute govern-
ment, since I am the chief of such an order of
things; but I do not understand a represent,
ative monarchy. It is the government of false-
hood, fraud, and corruption: I would retreat
to the wall of China rather than adopt it. I
have been a representative monarch ; and the
world knows what it has cost me declining to
submit to the exigencies of that infamous gov-
ernment. I disdained the usual means of man-
aging such assemblies : I would neither purchase
votes nor corrupt consciences, nor seduce some
to corrupt others. I disdained such methods,
as not less degrading to those who yield to,
than disgraceful to him who employs them,
and I have paid dear for my sincerity ; but God
be praised, 1 have done, and forever, w' ith that
form of government." Thirty years ago, these
words would have passed for the violent de-
clamation of a despotic prince, abusing any
institutions which put a restraint upon his
own power; but time has since , , ,,
â– if,. , 1 Le Marquis
then taught us many lessons: we do Custnie
have seen the representative sys- La Russie en
tem w^orkiug in France, Ireland, l^^'^i "â– '^'^>
and some parts of England.' ''
Strengthened by this great accession of
power and territory, which brought j,,
their advanced posts into the heart Gr?at in-
of Europe, within a hundred and fluency of
eighty miles both of Vienna and ^"^sia.
Berlin, Russia now assumed the place which
she has ever since maintained as the undisputed
arbiter of eastern Europe. Happy if she does
not also become the mistress of the west, and
the endless divisions of its aspiring inhabitants
are not in the end extinguished by the unity
of her advancing power. Great as are the
physical resources of Russia, and rapidly as
they have recently increased her influence, the
prestige of her name, the dread of her strength,
have increased in a still greater proportion.
Men looked with a sort of superstitious awe on
an empire which had never receded for c(Mitii-
ries — which, secured in rear by the snows of the
polar circle, had stretched its mighty arms almost
to the torrid zone; which numbered the A' i.i-
tula, the Amour, the Danube, and the Euphra-
tes among its frontier streams, and already
boasted of possessing a seventh of the lial)it;il)lo
globe within its dominions. Kor had the evenl.s
of recent times weakened this undefined im-
pression; Napoleon's words had proved true,
that Russia was backed "by two invincible
allies, time and space:" foreign assault was
hopeless against a state which had repelled the
invasion of five hundred thousand men; and
no empire, how strong soever, seemed capable
of witlistanding a power wliicli, beginning its
career of viclorv Avilh the burning of .Moscow,
had teriidf.nli'd it by llic cfiplure of Paris.
>ss
IIISTOIIY OF EUROPE.
[ClIAF. Vlll.
Wlint hns nupmontoJ in tlic most ronuukablo
ili'iiroo this riuiral iiithu'iu'o, is tlio
Groai wis- l*riiJ«-''i<-"e niul wisdom witii wiiioli it
doin or" Us lias been exercisoil. Kover iinpolled
cxitTiuU by seiisi'loss ninbition on the j)iirt of
f^"'^i- its rulers, or frnntie passions amoncj
its people, the policy of IJiissia fur two centuries
has been eniinently luodorato and judicious.
Its rulers are constantly actuated by the lust
of conijuesl, but tlicy never precipitate the
moment of attack; conscious of their own
strength, they await calmly the moment of
action, and tiicn a[>pear with decisive effect.
Like a great man in the conduct of life, they
are never impelled by the thirst for immediate
display which is the torment and bane of little
minds, but are satisfied to appear when circum-
stances call them forth, aware that no efibrt
will then be required to prove their superiority.
Their conquests, how great soever, seem all to
liave been the result of necessity; constantly,
in reality, aggressive, they have almost always
appeared, in serious warfare, on the defensive.
Ihe conquest of Finland in 1808, the result of
the treaty of Tilsit, is the only one for the last
century in which its cabinet was avowedly
and ostensibly the aggressors. While this pru-
dent policy disarms their neighbors, and in-
duces them to rely on the supposed modera-
tion and magnanimity of the government, it
adds immensely to their own strength when the
moment of action has arrived. Every interval
of peace is attended by a rapid growth of their
internal resources, and its apparent leisure is
sedulously improved by the government in
preparing the means of future conquest. 'So
senseless cry for economy, no " ignorant impa-
tience of taxation," paralyzes their strength on
the termination of hostilities, and makes them