by ' true beginnings ' they mean the beginnings which
^Ma'aseh Efod, chapter 8, pp. 42, seq.
206
PRO FIAT DURAN 207
are known either through the nature of the intellect, as
the first principles, or through sense perception, or
through experience. According to this, the study of
language is no science at all, for its beginnings are con-
ventional, and are not evolved through any of the ways
that I have mentioned. In our opinion, however, the
term ' science ' is more comprehensive, for we call
science anything that is known through investigation,
analogy, or proof, no matter whether the principles and
beginnings upon which it is based are essentially true,
or arbitrary and conventional. The teacher ^ has al-
ready called such sciences ' conventional sciences.' Ac-
cordingly, the study of language is a science, and the
definition of science rightly applies to it ; for by it are
known, through investigation and proof, the results
derived from principles and beginnings which have
been laid down in it. The wise man R. Jonah said in
the description of grammar that it signifies investi-
gation and searching. This is merely an interpretation
of the term, which does not give us the definition of
grammar itself.
Now when a speech is merely in conformity with
the principles and rules of the language, without hav-
ing sweetness, beauty, polish, and embellishment, in the
simple and complex forms, and is not free from super-
fluity or excessive brevity compared with the meaning
intended to be conveyed, such a discourse is said to be
merely grammatical ; the man who essentially and
constantly speaks in that manner is said to be a gram-
marian; and the power by which he speaks in that
manner is called grammar. When the speech also
has sweetness, beauty, polish, and embellishment, in
the simple and complex forms, it is said to be rhetorical
* That is, Maimonides.
2o8 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
(it is derived from the expression : ' How sweet are
Thy words unto my palate ! ' ^ which signifies : how
sweet and pleasant are they!) ; the author of such a
speech is called a rhetorician, provided that this manner
of speech is essential and constant with him ; and
the capacity which he has for such a speech is called
rhetoric. If in addition to all these characteristics,
the speech is also metrical, it is called a poem ; its
author is called a poet, provided this is essential and
constant with him ; and the capacity which he pos-
sesses for that is called poetry. By the word ' metre '
I mean to say that the portions of the discourse are
equal in the number of their vowels (thou already
knowest about that). This is called a poem, because
by m^eans of the metre it is possible to sing it aloud.
The term ' poem ' has also been applied to anything
that is to be understood allegorically, as, for instance,
the Song of Songs, and others. The rhetorical dis-
courses and poems of the Jews have a special charac-
teristic which I have not seen or heard in the dis-
courses and poems of other nations. The Jewish
rhetoricians and poets add sweetness, beauty, and
polish to their sentences by giving their rhetorical
discourses and poems the form of the scriptural verses
and of the sayings of the wise and by their endeavor-
ing that that form should agree with the meaning of
their discourses, either according to the plain mean-
ing of the Bible, or according to some figurative ap-
plication which they put into the discourse. It is the
highest degree of elegance and beauty in rhetoric and
rhetoricians when they make their discourses to be
in harmony with, and add to them sweetness from,
the divine speech. This is due to the circumstance
^ Psalm 1 19. 103.
PRO FIAT DURAN 209
that the Hebrew tongue is now deficient, as was ex-
plained, and therefore the rhetoricians, when they wish
to render their discourses sweet and elegant, find it
necessary to embelHsh and beautify them with the
rhetorical expressions that exist. Accordingly, their
loss is cancelled by their gain, and their deficiency
turned to advantage. I have likewise noticed that the
Jewish rhetoricians possess another peculiarity not
shared by the rhetoricians of other nations : the knowl-
edge of grammar comes to them naturally, and their
discourses are always in conformity with the principles
and rules of the science of language, though they
do not study the books that were composed on this
science ; yet it is only casually, and very rarely, that
they commit mistakes or errors according to the prin-
ciples of the language. One is not to condemn or to
blame them for that, for even in the works of nature
casual mistakes are sometimes found. This power of
theirs with which they were endowed by nature caused
them to neglect and disregard the study of the books
devoted to the science of language, which are ac-
counted by them as things of nought and confusion.
14
XXXVIII. SIMON B. ZEMAH DURAN
[Rabbinical authority and philosopher. He was born at the
island of Majorca in 1361, and died in 1444. He lived for
some time in Algiers. His literary activity was devoted to
philosophj^, Bible, and Talmud, and his best known work is
Magen Abot (Shield of the Fathers), which is a theological-
philosophical treatise.]
On the Problem Why the Wicked Prosper and
the Righteous Are in Distress ^
Indeed the difficulty about the wicked man who is
prosperous seems to be no difficulty at all. For God,
who is blessed, is good, and bestows good upon all. He
does not withhold good from the wicked, just as He
does not withhold from the lions their claws where-
with they tear their prey, for they are needed for the
acquisition of their food. In all this the philosopher
and the theologian concur ; there is no difference be-
tween them. The only difference between them is that
the philosopher cannot believe that divine Providence
should attach itself to an individual, to save him from
evils for his righteousness, or to withhold bliss from
him for his wickedness ; while the theologian believes
that Providence attaches itself to an individual just as
it attaches itself to the entire species which is perma-
nent. For an individual man's intellect is as permanent
as the species, and hence Providence attaches itself to
him, just as it attaches itself to the species. There is a
very subtle speculation in this. For it is known that
the species exist only in the intellect, and that nothing
^ Magen Abot, part 3, chapter 2, p. 3^.
210
SIMON B. ZEMAH DURAN
but individuals actually exist. Aristotle, however, in
his Metaphysics has explained that the matter is quite
the reverse, that the individuals create the species in
their intellects, through repetition/ Now since the
species have no actual existence, and Providence can
only attach itself to that which has actual existence,
what is the cause of their permanence according to the
philosopher ? For he is of the opinion that Providence
attaches itself only to that which has permanence, and
the species is the only thing that has permanence ; but
the species has no existence, and Providence cannot
attach itself to that which has no existence. He there-
fore says that Providence is confined to the spheres,
stars, and separate intelligences, and that the species are
preserved through the influence that emanates from
them to this mental existence. But as to individuals, ail
their affairs are abandoned to chance, there being no
difference between individuals of the human race and
the individuals of animals. The theologian, how-
ever, believes that divine Providence attaches itself
to individuals on account of their intellect, although
it has not the same permanence as the separate intelli-
gences and as the intellect of the spheres. All that
is found in this lower world was created for the
use of man. Accordingly, from Providence that is
attached to each individual man there emanates a
Providence to the species of the animals, so that
through their preservation the existence of man should
be preserved. Upon this matter the philosophers are
agreed ; when they have investigated the functions
of the limbs and the functions of the animals, vege-
tables, and minerals, they have found them all to be
for the benefit of man, either for his food, raiment,
* That is, through repetition of perception.
212 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
sustenance, and dwelling-place, or for curing his dis-
eases. For even in harmful things there may be
found a cure and some benefit for man. If a pious
man has sometimes been cured with the excrement
of a devouring lion, or with the skin of a venomous
snake, then that injurious thing was created for the
benefit of man. Similarly, if one planted a vmeyard,
and made wine which a pious man has drunk when
stung by a viper and has been cured thereby, then
that wine was created for the benefit of that pious
man. In a similar manner our saintly teacher "" said,
when he was cured of an illness by apple-cider seventy
years old that was in the possession of a Gentile :
' Blessed be He who handed over His world to custo-
dians.' It is likewise for this reason that our sages
of blessed memory said : ' The Holy One, blessed be
He, has only four cubits of the law in His world.' *
They likewise said : ' The entire world was created
to attend to man.' ^ Ben Zoma said : ' Blessed be He
who created all these to serve me.' ° Concerning all this
I have already written in a preceding chapter. Now it
is impossible that all this is by mere chance, and is, there-
fore, due to divine Providence, as I shall, with the help
of God, explain at full length, when treating of the soul.
A strong argument is urged by the theologian against
the philosopher in this connection. Since man's in-
tellect is as permanent as the angels, divine Provi-
dence ought to attach itself to the intellect, as it at-
taches itself to the angels. Moreover, this fact made
itself manifest to the senses, as Scripture relates
of the punishment of the wicked, that some times
'That is, Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi. See 'Abodah Zarah 40b.
' Berakot 8a.
' Ibid. 6b ; Shabbat 30b.
* Berakot 58a.
SIMON B. ZEMAH DURAN 213
hyperphysical and supernatural calamities befall them,
having been forewarned by a man renowned as
a prophet ; at the same time the righteous are delivered
from these calamities, and prosper against the laws
of nature. This cannot be attributed to chance and
accident, for it occurred very frequently, and the
warning had been given by a man sent by God, who
is blessed, whose message could not be doubted. With
all these arguments the theologian establishes his be-
lief that God, who is blessed, supervises every indi-
vidual of the human race, giving a goodly reward to
the righteous, and bringing calamities upon the wicked.
To this the philosopher replies and says that, had
the aflairs of the world been arranged in this man-
ner, the contention of the theologians would have been
justified. But we also see that supernatural calami-
ties befall many righteous men, and, on the other hand,
many of the wicked who deserve evil prosper in a
manner contrary to natural reason. Had things been
arranged by God, w^ho is blessed, as the theologian
maintains, the righteous man should have been de-
livered from the misfortunes which had befallen him,
and prosperity should have been withheld from the
wicked.
The theologian says with regard to the misfortunes
that have come upon the righteous that it is a fallacious
contention. The fallacy is due to one of two considera •
tions : either on account of the subject, or on account of
the object. As to the subject, it is possible that this
man who, according to all appearances, is righteous,
is not good at all ; for He who understands his secrets
knows that he is bad ; men are deceived about him,
and decide that he is good, but He Vv^ho understands
his thoughts knows him to be bad. Or he may have
214 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
committed a crime for which he deserves this calamity.
As to the object, it is possible that these occurrences
which appear to be bad are not bad at all, but are for
the good of the sufferer.
In this manner the theologian evades the philoso-
pher's objection with reference to the righteous upon
whom misfortunes have come, and this ramifies into
many details. As to the prosperity of the wicked,
the theologian likewise says that there is a fallacy due
to one of two considerations: either on account of the
subject, or on account of the object. As to the sub-
ject, it is possible that this wicked man, although his
deeds committed openly show him to be undoubtedly
bad, must have performed a good deed for which he
deserves this prosperity as a recompense. As to the
object, it is possible that this prosperity is for his own
harm. This, too, is a general argument having many
ramifications with which the theologian evades the
objection with reference to the wicked who is pros-
perous.
XXXIX. JOSEPH ALBO
[Spanish theologian and philosopher. He was born about
1380, and died about 1444. His philosophic treatise entitled
'Jkkarim (Principles) is one of the great favorites of Hebrew
readers. He has a clear style, and makes himself readily un-
derstood. It is no doubt due to this characteristic that he sup-
planted his master Hisdai Crescas, author of Or ha-Shem
(Light of the Lord).]
The Various Ranks of Prophecy*
Although all the words of the prophets are doubt-
less true, nevertheless the degree of the exactitude of
a prophet's words corresponds to his rank and de-
gree in prophecy. There are many prophets who,
because of the weakness of their perception, do not
perceive things with sufficient clarity. For that which
happens to the perceptions of the s-^nses happens also
to the perceptions of the prophets : a man whose
senses are healthy and strong" perceives objects in their
exact form, while one whose senses are feeble does
not perceive them in their exact form, and perceives
only their species, or their genus, without being able
to distinguish the species. Thus a man with a strong
sense of sight recognizes a color, which he p'receives,
as it actually is (as, for instance, red or green) ; he
likewise recognizes the degree of redness or green-
ness. But one whose sense of sight is weak recog-
nizes only the genus, that is to say, that it is a color,
and no more ; and even if he recognizes the species,
that is to say, that it is red or green, he does not know
what degree of redness or greenness it is. The same is
the case with the sense of hearing and with the other
* 'Ikkarim, part 3, chapter 17.
215
2i6 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
senses. This very thing happens to the prophets as
regards their perception. One whose perception is
strong perceives the thing as it actually is without a
metaphor; his words are explicit, not obscure, and
are therefore to be understood as true according to
their plain meaning. But the words of a prophet of
a lower degree are obscure, couched in riddles and
parables, and are not explicit; they are therefore not
true according to their plain meaning, but only accord-
ing to the idea implied in them; for according to the
literal sense, something else, different from that which
is conveyed by the words, is to be understood. Thou
thus findest that Ezekiel, his prophecies being post-
exilic, spoke in parables and riddles which were not
true according to their plain meaning, so that he com-
plained of this to God, who is blessed, and said:
' They say of me : " Is he not a maker of parables ? '-' ' ^
Zechariah, likewise, having flourished toward the end
of the prophetic period, all his prophecies were in
visions which were not true according to their plain
meaning, but only according to that which was implied
in them. When he says that he saw horses, women,
and a golden candlestick with two olive-trees by it,
there is no truth in the matter of the candlestick and
olive-trees itself, but only in the idea implied in them.
But all the prophecies of Jeremiah, who lived before
the destruction of the temple, are very clearly ex-
plained. God, who is blessed, has already explained
this difference between the prophecy of Moses and
that of another prophet. Concerning the prophecy of
Moses He said : ' I speak with him mouth to mouth,
even manifestly, and not in dark speeches.' ' From
* Ezekiel 21. 5.
* Numbers 12.8.
JOSEPH ALBO 217
this it is to be inferred that the other prophets beside
Moses speak in riddles which are not expHcit, and in
visions which are not real. It is therefore necessary
that these visions should be explained in such a man-
ner that they harmonize with Moses' words. Simi-
larly, the words of a prophet of a lower rank should
always be explained in such a manner that they har-
monize with the words of a prophet of a higher rank
and do not dissent from him. It is in accordance
with this explanation that we find that Isaiah says :
' And I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and
lifted up,' * while Moses says : * For man shall not
see Me and live.' ° Had we not known the rank of
either of these prophets, we might have thought
Isaiah's words were accurate, and would have said that
because of his high rank he perceived of God that
which can possibly be perceived of Him, and he there-
fore said : ' And I saw the Lord ; ' but Moses, who
did not reach Isaiah's rank, and perceived but little of
God, said : ' For man shall not see Me and live,'
because his perception was weak, and his prophetic
rank low. Knowing, however, that Moses was master
of all prophets (as it is written : ' And the Lord spoke
unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his
friend,'* and it is likewise written: 'If there be a
prophet among you, I the Lord do make Alyself known
unto him in a vision, I do speak with him in a dream ;
IMy servant Moses is not so With him do I
speak mouth to mouth, even manifestly, and not in
dark speeches''), we are assured that Moses' words
are undoubtedly true according to their plain mean-
* Isaiah 6. i.
° Exodus 33. 20.
° Exodus 33. II.
' Numbers 12. 6-8.
2i8 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
ing. On the other hand, the words of Isaiah, who
was lower than he in rank, are not accurate ; it is be-
cause of his low rank that he said : ' And I saw the
Lord ; ' for he believed that he saw God, while it was
not so in reality : it was through the influence of the
imaginative faculty. Moses, however, because the
imaginative faculty had no influence whatsoever on
his prophecy (for his prophecy was the outcome
of the rational faculty that was in him, detached
from the other corporeal faculties), said: 'For man
shall not see Me and live ; ' and this is true. But
Isaiah, because in his prophecy he dlso made use of
the imaginative faculty, which our teachers of blessed
memory call ' the speculum which is not lucid,' ^ was
led to err and to believe, through the imaginative
faculty, that he had seen God. He himself made it
manifest that this perception of his was erroneous,
through the imaginative faculty, and explained that
the cause thereof was that his body was not purified
as the body of Moses our teacher ; and that is the
meaning of what he said : ' Because I am a man of
unclean lips.' ° Nor were his qualities adequate ; and
that is the meaning of what he said : * And I dwell
in the midst of a people of unclean lips.' *° For through
dwelling among people of bad traits, the qualities of
the good man become corrupt. He therefore com-
plained, and said : ' Woe is me ! for I am undone,' "
as if he would say : ' I was influenced by the imagina-
tive faculty, and my prophecy is not through a lucid
speculum like the prophecy of Moses who heard the
voice speaking to him, without seeing any form before
' Yebamodt 49b.
° Isaiah 6. 5.
" Ibid. In the Hebrew the word for undone is similar to the
one for imaginative.
JOSEPH ALBO 219
his eyes. But I, because my prophecy is through a
speculum which is not lucid, that is by means of the
imaginative faculty, I am not aole to comprehend the
speech without seeing the form that is speaking. This
was caused by my being a man of unrlean lips, and by
my dwelling in the midst of a people of unclean lips.
I therefore complain, and say : Woe is me ! for I am
undone. For my eyes have seen the King, the Lord
of hosts, and I know that this is the result of the
imaginative faculty ; since there is no doubt that it
is impossible for one who prophesies through the lucid
speculum to attribute any form or likeness to Him,
who is blessed, even in a prophetic vision.' This is
the meaning of what our sages of blessed memory
said :â– ' Manasseh slew Isaiah. Whereupon Raba says :
He tried him and slew him. He said unto him : Thy
master Moses said : For man shall not see Me and
live, but thou didst say : And I saw the Lord.' " They
have also remarked that he could have refuted this
argument, but he did not reply, because he knew that
Manasseh would not accept his answer. The answer
that he could have given is that even concerning those
that lived in the time of Aloses it is written : ' And
they saw the God of Israel ; ' " here, too, because their
perception was not through the lucid speculum. From
all this it is manifest that it is not possible for a
prophet of a lower rank to dissent from the words of
one who is of a higher rank ; but his words must be
explained in such a manner that they are not at vari-
ance with the words of the greater prophet. Now,
since it is explicitly stated in the Torah that Moses'
prophecy is of a rank higher than that of all other
" Yebamot 49b.
" Exodus 24. 10.
220 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
prophets, it is not possible for us to hearken to any
prophet who dissents from him, and annuls his words.
But the question whether it is possible for a prophet
to explain the words of Moses, and to say that, al-
though they were written without a qualification, there
is a condition or time connected with them, even if it
was not expHcitly stated, will be treated of in the follow-
ing, with the help of God.
XL. ISAAC B. JUDAH ABRAVANEL
[Statesman, philosopher, and biblical exegete. He was born
at Lisbon in 1437, and died at Venice in 1508. He was treas-
urer at the court of king Alfonso V of Portugal. When the
Jews were expelled from Spain, he left that country and went
tc Naples. He was a prolific writer, and in all his works he
displayed clear-sightedness and a thorough mastery of the
subjects under discussion, though he lacked striking originality.
His most popular work is his commentary on the Bible.]
The Advantages of a Republic over a Monarchy '
Behold, it behooves us to know whether a monarch
IS a necessity, inherently needed for the people, or it
is possible to exist without him. The philosophers
adopt the former opinion, and think that the service
rendered by the king to the people in the political
organization is the same as the relation of the
heart to the body in animals possessing a heart, and
as the relation of the First Cause to the entire
universe. Now if the investigators think that a
kingdom must be based on three things (firstly,
unity and absence of partnership; secondly, continuity
and absence of change; thirdly, absolute power), then
their conclusion as to the need and necessity of a mon-
arch is indeed fallacious. For it is not impracticable
that a people should have many leaders, united,
agreeing, and concurring in one counsel, who should
decide administrative and judicial matters. This mili-
tates against the first principle. Then, why should
not their administration be for one year, or for three
years, like the years of a hireling, or less than that?
* Commentary on Deuteronomy 17. 15.
222 POST-BIBLICAL HEBREW LITERATURE
When the turn of other judges and officers comes,
they will arise in their stead, and investigate whether
the first ones have not failed in their trust, and he
whom they condemn shall make good the wrong he
committed. This militates against the second prin-
ciple. Then again, why should not their power be
limited and regulated according to the laws and
statutes ? A common-sense principle tells us that when
one man disagrees with the majority, the law is accord-
ing to the majority. It is more likely that one man
should trespass, through his folly, or strong temp-
tations or anger (as it is written: 'the wrath of
a king is as messengers of death '^), than that
many men taking counsel should transgress. For
if one of them turns aside from the right path, the
others will protest against him. Moreover, since their