The charges are worked in gold silk ; and what adds to
its interest is the fact that it is a specimen of the hand-
weaving of the clothiers of Newbury at the time of
THE CLOTHWORKERS OF NEWBURY. 267
William and Mary, and the shield of arms a production
of the old silk factory at Greenham Mills.
Many a more durable token, however, have the old
clothiers of Newbury, who daily congregated at the
picturesque but sadly neglected old Cloth Hall, left
behind them of their readiness to dispense with a ready
hand a portion of the wealth thus honourably accumu-
lated — the name of Winchcombe is inseparably connected
with our noble Church, and everywhere around us alms-
houses and other institutions testify to some act of ]jiety
or charity of " the men famous of old time dealing with
the principal and noblest staple of all these islands,
woollen cloth."
NOTE ON ENGLISH ROMANESQUE
ARCHITECTURE.
J5Y J. PARK HARKISOX.
(Bead December 2nd, 189tj).
MISTAKE 111 the identification of the two
towers at Lincohi, called respectively
St. Peter's at Gowts and St. Mary le
Wigford, which Mr. E. A. Freeman
believed were those belonging to the
churches stated in Domesday Book to
have been built after the Conquest, forms
the principal obstacle to the reception of a pre-Normau
date for English masonry and ornament, when differing
much from early Saxon work.
The late Precentor Venables discovered Mr. Freeman's
error so far back as 1890, and communicated a lucid
refutation of it to the British Archaeological Association,
at the Lincohi Congress, when discussing a paper on local
Saxon work by Mr. Loftus Brock, and it was printed in
full in the current number of the Journal. The correc-
tion appeared also in an abbreviated form, with Mr.
Venables' approval, in a pamphlet on " English Archi-
tecture before the Conquest", three years afterwards.^
But the supreme importance of the discovery seems to
have been overlooked, and the far-reaching consequences
of the mistake entirely escaped recognition, or has been
greatly under-estimated. As a consequence, these two
early towers, being supposed to be dated examples of
late Saxon work, though the only ones that exist, block
the way to archaeological research, and all but forbid any
re-examination of the remains of churches which are
^ Published by H. I'rowde, Amen Corner, E.G., p. 25.
NOTE ON ENGLISH ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 269
known to have been founded by our later Saxon kings
and bishops, and very probably contain portions of* origi-
nal stone-work, or architectural features that were copied
by Norman builders.
This would be especially likely to occur in the case of
churches founded or rebuilt in the first half of the eleventh
century, towards the end of which period Mr. J. H.
Parker, in his latest publication, admitted that Saxon
architecture was by no means behind Norman, either in
regard to ornament or masonry, but rather the reverse.^
I propose, then, to recount in this Note, very briefly,
Precentor Venables' important discovery of the incorrect
date which has been given to the two towers ; and that
all the more earnestly in view of the fatal archseological
consequences that continue to attend Mr, Freeman's
mistake.
On the occasion above referred to, Precentor Venables
reminded the meeting that Mr. Freeman had assigned to
the Lincoln towers a date subsequent to the Conquest,
and regarded them as the work of a certain Colswegen,
who is mentioned in Domesdcuj as having received land
outside Lincoln from the Conqueror, on which he built
thirty houses and two churches. Li Mr. Freeman's own
words : - " From the Conqueror he (Colswegen) received
as a grant a piece of land beyond the river, on which, at
the time of the Survey, thirty houses, the beginning of
the lower town, had risen ; and for their inhabitants he
built two churches : churches which stand high above the
other buildings of shire and city in deep and thrilling
interest, the source of the interest which invests them,
or rather their towers, for that is all that remains of them,
is the proof given by their presumed date that ' they
rose under the hands of Englishmen in the ancient style
of Englishmen'."
" Now in what direction (Mr. Venables asked) does
documentary evidence point ? Let us first look at
Domesday, and see what that says. h\ Mr. C. Gower
Smith's translation, p. 4, we read thus : ' Colswain has
in the city of Lincoln four tofts of land . . . and outside
^ A B C of Gothic Architecture, -ith Ed., note, p. 12.
- Towns and Districts, \). 210.
270 NOTE ON ENGLISH ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
the city he has thirty-six houses and two churches, to
which nothing belongs, he having built them on the same
uncultivated land which the King gave him, and which
was never before built upon.' On which side of the river
Colswegen built his houses and churches the Survey was
entirely silent.
" Domesday saying nothing as to the situation of Cols-
wegen's grant, we must look elsewhere for indications of
its position. The late Mr. Ross, whose History of Lincoln
(still unhappily only in manuscript) is one of the chief
treasures of Lord Oxenbridge's library at Burton Hall,
states as an unquestionable fact that the land bestowed
on Colswegen was ' the Eastern Morass' on the north
bank of the river
["This] Eastern Morass was the tract of swampy ground
lying between the present ' Monks' Road' and the river.
Here stood two churches, St. Peter's-by-the-Pump and
St. Austin's-at-Baggerholms, which Mr. Ross states to
have been those erected by Colswegen. As both of these
churches, in consequence of the decay of the city, were
demolished early in the sixteenth century, there are no
architectural data for testing this statement. Its truth,
however, is abundantly proved by the fact that one of
the churches, that of St. Peter-by-the-Pump, together
with a large tract of land, was given by Colswegen's son,
Picot, to the Abbey of St. Mary at York. . . . The last
vicar was one Bracebridge, in 1446, to whom no successor
was appointed, the parish having become destitute of
people. The other church, St. Austin's, also fell into
decay from the same cause, and, as I have said, was taken
down in 1533-4."
Mr. Yenables sums up his proofs as follows : — " I
think it will be allowed that this gift of land and a
church in this particular locality to St. Mary's Abbey, by
Picot, Colswegen's son, establishes the truth of Mr. Ross's
identification of the Conqueror's grant with the ' Eastern
Morass', and of the churches built by him with those
named above."
Now as the general disbelief in the existence of any
better architecture than the Lincoln towers previous to
the Conquest is founded on the erroneous identification
THE HOLY SEPULCHRE.
(From Cotton. MS., Tiberiu.t, C. VI.)
NOTE ON ENGLISH ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 271
SO conclusively corrected by Canon Venables, I venture
to draw the careful attention of archaeologists to the
architectural detail in the accompanying two Plates.
It belongs to the first half of the eleventh century,
when, according to De Caumont, a great improvement
took place in Western Romanesque, principally due to
intercourse with the East. I need scarcely say that
the edifice which represents the "Holy Sepulchre" (from
the illuminated MS. Tiberius C. vi, in the British
Museum) is mainly ideal. Professor Westwood, however,
believed that it and other architectural designs of the
same period were drawn by artists who also worked in
stone and metal. It is allowable, then, to direct attention
to features like the spiral pillar, and the circular windows
over round-headed ones apparently in a lofty wall, to
the early cushion caps and zigzag mouldings, and to the
other features that closely resemble work at Waltham
Abbey, which, according to Mr. Purges, formed part of
Harold's design for his church, though much was copied
and restored subsequently by the Norman abbots of
the new foundation, c. 1077 r, very much as has been
shown by me to have been the case'in Oxford Cathedral.^
The second Plate of architectural detail from various
illuminated manuscripts, formed part of the illustration
of the pamphlet above alluded to.
The details in this Plate that call for special attention
from their bearing a resemblance to Norman work, are
the followinff : —
The lofty pillars and arches (figs. 2, 4, 7) ; the
rounded capitals (figs. 2, 4, G, 7) ; square turrets (tigs.
4, 5, 6,7) ; engaged shafts to doorways (fig. 7) ; a sacred
cradle in form of a church, with clear-storey, aisle and
side turrets (fig. 5) ; round-headed windows with side-
shafts (fig. 6) ; diaper w^ork (figs. 1 and 3) ; label, decora-
ted w^ith small arches (fig. 8) ; a battlement (fig. 6) ; arch,
ornamented with |)ellets (fig. 9) ; string, with saw-tooth
moulding (fig. 12) ; band, or string, with zigzags and
dots (fig. 11) ; chevron-carving (fig. 13) ; foliage (fig. 5).
These features occur in the following MSS., none' beino-
1 Archceologia Oxoniensis, Part 1. Frowde, Amen Corner, E.G.
272 NOTE Oisr ENGLISH ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
later than the first half of the eleventh century ; and
nearly all in the early part of it : —
I. Psalter of King Athelstan, B. M. (%. 5).
II. Q^lfric's Anglo-Saxon Pentateuch. Cotton MS.,
Claudius, B. iv (figs. 4, 10, 12).
HI, Ca3dmaon's Paraphrase. Bodleian, Junius 2 c. (figs.
1, 2, 13).
IV. Dunstan, Cotton MS., Claudius A. 11 (figs. 8, 13).
V. Psalter, Cotton MS., Tiberius C. vi (figs. 5, 6, 9,
11).
Similar architectural details have also been met with
in twelve other illuminated MSS. of the same early date.
^
^
i^
:fc
^^/
'/.
/a^
sVa^
sV
^^\•
^
">r
/x^O
A
-r/
^
v
.L,V
/i
v=-
'/
^A^
^V^
sV
^aV
KAKI.V AKCIUTKCTrRAL DETAILS, C. A.D. 1000.
MAN'S ADVENT IN AMERICA.
DY UK. A. C. FltYEK.
{Read November ith, 1896.)
'HO were the mound buildei's ?" lias l)eeii
long a vexed question. Dr. Franklin
attributed them to De Soto and his
followers. Some, however, have declared
they were burial structures built by some
tribe now lost in oblivion ; others have
said they were sacrificial altars, or, at
any rate, temples. All have declared they were built by
some prehistoric race distinct from the Indians, who
were driven out by the latter.
In 1858 Major Powell began a careful examination of
tlie mounds in Ohio, and Professor Cyrus Thomas and
his assistant have carefully continued the work. This
labour has been completed. It is now believed the
Indians were two separate races, and one tribe landed on
the Pacific coast while the other arrived on the Atlantic
side. All the artificial works known as "mounds" found
east of the Rockies are now considered to be the work of
those tribes found in possession of this region at the time
of its discovery, and their ancestors. I'hey may liave
had intercourse with the people who inhabited Mexico
and Central America, as well as the Pueblo tribes ; but
the credit of building the mounds must be given to the
Indians and not to these latter- named races.
De Soto found all the Indians between Florida and
Western Arkansas raising maize and vegetables. The
same may be said of the district from Florida to Massa-
chusetts. From the Atlantic to the prairies, and from
274 man's advent in America.
the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, the Indians
originally depended for food upon agriculture rather than
the hunt. Consequently, in early times, they had
stationary towns. Doubtless their buildings were simple,
but the fact that the chief villages had council-houses,
temples, and grain-houses, indicated a certain degree of
permanency. Since the coming of the white man the
Indian has degenerated, and instead of having fixed
villages and depending upon agriculture he is now roving
and unhoused.
The Indians had no traditions respecting the mound
builders. Their memories were poor for historical facts,
for when the French made a second visit to their land it
was found they had forgotten all about De Soto and his
expedition.^
Some have argued that the Northmen built the
mounds. They may have discovered America before
Columbus, but they certainly made no permanent abodes
or leFt any people there. Others cannot believe that the
Indians could have constructed the larger mounds. They
forget, however, that the Indians were able to make
great canals, and in Europe still greater works were built
by races then in a low state of barbarism.
It has been pointed out by American archaeologists
that in some southern districts it was not unusual to
build dwellings on low terraces, apparently artificial.
When death occurred, tlie dead were placed beneath the
earthen floor. The house was then set on fire and a
mound was heaped up over the smouldering ruins. The
early French explorers state that these houses were built
by setting upright sticks in the ground and joining them
by interweaving twigs or canes. The rude walls were
plastered with clay, and the roofs were thatched. Some
of the mounds owe their origin to this custom.
Moscoso^ visited an Indian town on the Mississippi,
and he found a mound of earth used as a protection
against floods ; and, in fact, each house was built upon a
^ Between De Soto's expedition and this second visit of the French
was only one hundred and thirty years.
^ Moscoso succeeded De Soto in the command of the Spanish
soldiers.
man's advent in AMERICA. 275
mound in case the dyke should break. This is another
reason for the construction of some of the mounds.
Professor Thomas has evidence that some Indians, Viviug
in the South when first visited by white men, erected
mounds for fortifications. It has also been noted that if
the fortifications which the Indians were able to build,
were burnt down, or allowed to decay, they would appear
just as the mounds do to-day.
Many of the mounds must have been constructed after
the arrival of the white man. In one in Minnesota
was found a silver bracelet, with " Montreal" and " B.C."
stamped upon it ; also three copper ear-rings, a string of
white beads, four common pins, a needle, a small pearl
ornament, and a quartz arrow-point. On one in Tennes-
see three copper sleigh bells were discovered near the
skeleton of a child ; and in another, in the same district, a
steel-bladed bone-handled case kriife was unearthed. In
a mound in Illinois a brass Roman Catholic medal was
found. This object was known to have been made later
than the year 1700. A stone containing engraved letters
of the Cherokee Indian alphabet was discovered in a
mound in the valley of the Little Tennessee. A piece of
silver stamped with the Spanish coat-of-arms was found
in one in Mississippi; while in a mound in Georgia a piece
of glazed Spanish pottery was discovered. In Ohio one
of the mounds revealed several skeletons, a gun-barrel,
and the metal mountings of the stock. In all the above
cases these objects were found at the very bottom of the
mounds, and evidently the mounds had not been dis-
turbed since the time they were built.
American archaeologists are being convinced that the
" mound builders" were the ancestors of the Indians,
because no other race inhabited the regions where the
mounds exist before the arrival of these two early Indian
tribes. Archa3ological remains point to the fact that
these tribes came from across the Pacific.
CHRISTIAN EMBLEMS FOUND AT TRIER.
BY Di:. A. C. FRYEK.
[Read November ISfh, 1896.)
HE Provincial Museum of Trier is par-
ticularly rich in early Christian antiquities,
and it contains some one hundred and
thirty inscriptions on small marble or
stone slabs, which were originally let
into the lids of stone coffins. Many of
these slabs are quite perfect ; others,
liowever, are mere fragments. Most of these inscriptions
begin in the usual way : hie iacet, hie iacet in pace, hie
panned. The baptismal names are given, and in many
cases some Christian emblem or symbol is employed, either
above or below the inscription.
The earliest Christian emblem was doubtless that
simple monogram expressing the name of Christ by the
first two letters, in Greek characters. This served as a
sign of the Christian faith, and presented an image of the
Saviour to the minds of the early Christians, which
perhaps may not have been understood by their heathen
persecutors.
The earliest form of this sacred monogram is No. I,
and is found in Rome on monuments dating from the
early part of the fourth century. No. II is a later form
of the X (Chi) P (Rho) monogram, and is found on
inscriptions in Rome from a.d. 355. Both these forms of
the sacred monogram are met with on the inscriptions at
Trier. "With two exceptions", says Professor Hettner,
" these inscriptions at Trier belong to the fourth and the
early part of the fifth century."^ Nearly all the Christian
1 See Die roemischfin Steindenhmaeler des Provinzialmuseums zu
Trier, von Prof. F. Ilcttncr, p. 142.
X -f X ©
TL
HL
IT
^
n It
YT
vm
S-P ^
XT
xa
xnr
XHT
"'^'-i^
X7
f t;
XVI
•>
L_
CIIKISTIAN EMULEJIS AT TKIKR.
CHRISTIAN KMBLEMS FOUND AT TRIEIl. 277
inscriptions in the Museum at Trier have heen found in
that neiglibourhood.
The oldest form of the sacred monogram (No. I) is met
with on fifteen of the slabs, and the monogram is usually
accompanied by the first and last letter of the Greek
alphabet in reference to the verse in the Revelation : —
" I am Alpha and Omega, the First and the Last."
The later form of the sacred monogram is found on as
many as twenty-six slabs, and in thirteen cases this
emblem is accompanied with the Alpha and Omega. On
the gravestone to Iledus^ is only the P (Rho), with the
Alpha and Omega enclosed in a circle. The circle was
the ancient symbol of eternity, and its form is continually
found to bear the same meaning in the representations of
Christian art (No. IV).
On the inscription to the seven-year-old Gaudentiolus,
the sacred monogram is represented with no bow to the
P (Rho). This monogram (No. Ill) has the letter I, the
initial of Jesus, added to the Greek % (Chi). The original
stone is in the Museum at Brussels.
A gravestone was found in the year 1845 in St. Maxi-
min, Trier, and is represented in No. XVIII. This stone
has no inscription, and the lower unornamented portion
was intended to be placed in the earth. Two doves are
depicted on either side of a circle. The circle contains a
form of the sacred monogram which is met with on a coin
of Constantine.
On the slab to the thirty-eight year-old Valentinus,
and also on the stone to BahJ)o, is a simple Latin cross
instead of the sacred monogram. This sacred sign
appeared in Rome about the last quarter of the fourth
century, aiid in Gaul about the middle of the fifth
century. On the stone to Valentinus a dove stands on
either side the cross, representing Christians contem|)lat-
ing the symbol of salvation. On the stone to Bahho the
cross has a tree on one side of it, but, as the stone is
damaged it is impossible to know what has been on the
other side.
The dove was not only the emblem of the Holy Spirit
1 The original is in tlie Museutn at Miunihoini.
278 CHRISTIAN EMBLEMS FOUND AT TRIER.
bat it was also applied to Christians, in whom gentleness
and meekness, the peculiar qualities of this bird, should
be conspicuous.^ It has been pointed out that under the
Mosaic Law it was considered the emblem of purity and
innocence, and Christ Himself desired His disciples to
be " harmless as doves".
The artists who carved the doves on the slabs at Trier
had their own ideas respecting the outward appearance
of these birds. The author of this paper draws attention
to the following : — No. V is a somewhat stately bird,
6 ins. long, and copied from the slab to the memory of
Amantia. No. VI is a very plump bird, 4^ ins. long,
and taken from the gravestone of a comes, while No. VII
is copied from the slab to the four-year-old Marcus, and
is the only instance of the head being turned away.
No. VIII is portrayed in the action of walking, and is
taken from the tablet to the memory of Suhdiaconus
Ursinianus. No. IX is copied from the slab to Concordia.
This is a curious-shaped dove, and stands on an olive
branch, the emblem of peace and forgiveness. No. X is
7 ins. long, and is from a broken slab found in the
Basilica at Trier. No, XI is from an inscription on the
opposite side of the stone to the one to Concordia
(No. IX) : it is rudely cut. No. XII is from the tablet
to the memory of the eight-month-old Barhario, and is
4^ ins. long."
In three instances doves are represented standing near
a vase. This may be symbolical of the waters of salva-
tion ; but it may also have a particular allusion to
Christians partaking of the cup of salvation in the Holy
Eucharist, and refreshing themselves with spiritual
nourishment. It has also been suggested that, as in this
instance, the vase may signify the human body, the
" earthen vessels" spoken of by St. Paul, and the recep-
tacle of spiritual gifts, while the doves represent the
innocence and simplicity of the soul.-'
Three dift'erently shaped vases are found on the slabs at
1 See Twining's Christian Symbols and Emblems, p. 182.
2 The dove, as a Christian symbol, is found in Rome on inscrip-
tions as early as 268 a.d.
3 See Twining's Christian Symbols and Emblems, p. 183.
CHRiSTIAK EMBLEM.S FOUND AT TRIER. 279
Trier. No. XIII is from the tablet to the memory of
Suhdiaconus Ursimanus. No. XIV is from the slab to
the thirty-four-years-old Amelius, and on the right side
only is the dove, while on the left is an olive. No. XV
is copied from the stone to the memory of the forty-tive-
years-old Genesius.
Various forms of trees are met with (No. XVI) ; these are
doubtless intended for the olive and the vine.^ The image
of the tree in the Gospels, bringing forth its good fruit and
its evil fruit, is employed to describe the deeds of men.
Trees may be considered as emblems of the Resurrection,
for every spring they put forth fresh life and vigour.
Although the vine was frequently represented in
heathen works of art, yet the Christians constantly made
use of it,"- for Christ compared Himself to it in His own
words : — " I am the vine, ye are the branches."
The olive was also a heathen emblem, and the victors
were crowned with it in the games held in honour of
Minerva. Christians, however, considered it to be the
emblem of peace and forgiveness ; and it was also said to
signify the faith of the just, the fruit of the church :
probably with reference to the Psalm in which David
compares himself to " a green olive-tree in the house of
God". Doubtless the early Christians used it in the
sense of victory, to encourage the hope of triumph as well
as of peace.
St. Augustine and Tertullian both mention the fish as
a symbol of Christ (No. XVII). Although the well-known
anagram^ was composed of Greek letters, yet the emblem is
only to be met with in Latin monuments. Amongst the
early Christians the fish was the symbol of baptism. Ter-
tullian says : " We are born in water, like the fish" ; and
1 Vine leaves and birds compose a border to the slab to the memory
of the Presbyter Aufidius, found in Trier in 1781, near the Mosel
Bi'idge.
^ See No. XVI. These trees (olive and vine) are copied from
the following slabs in the Museum at Trier : — to the sixteen-years-old
Martina, to the Sarracina, to the seven-years old Ursa, to the tliirty-
four-years-old Amelius, to the four-years-old Marcus, to the seventy-five-
years-old Jovianus Vitalis.
3 The Greek word for fish was formed of the first letters of the words
"Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour."
1896 '^1
280
CHRISTIAN EMBLEMS FOUND AT TRlEK.
in time the baptised came even to be called by that name,
as in the hymn of Clement of Alexandria, in which Christ
is spoken of as "drawing fish out of the waters of sin."
In the Catacombs a fish is frequently met with, and
indicates that those who were buried there were baptised
Christians. The fish disappears in the monuments in
Kome about the end of the fourth century : in Gaul it is
met with at a later date.
In Trier only one inscription has been found with the
fish upon it. This monument is to Vicarius Hlodericus,
and dates from the middle of the fifth century. The
later form of the sacred monogram is placed at the
beginning of the inscription. At the end of the inscrip-
tion (No. XVIII) is a creature like a crocodile, with feet,