ships divided into a certain number of classes, each of
which comprises vessels of the same dimensions, the
rigging made for one vessel will fit any other of its
class ; a circumstance which renders the supply of
distant stations more easy.
(425.) The effects of the removal of a monopoly
are often very important, and they were perhaps never
more remarkable than in the bobbin-net trade, in the
years 1824 and 1825. These effects were, however,
considerably enhanced by the general rage for specu-
lation which was so prevalent during that singular
period. One of the patents of Mr. Heathcote for a
bobbin-net machine had just then expired, whilst
another, for an improvement in a particular part of
such machines, called a turn-again, had yet a few
350 EFFECT OF TAXES
years to run. Many licenses had been granted to
use the former patent, which were charged at the
rate of about five pounds per annum for each quarter
of a yard in width, so that what is termed a six-
quarter frame (which makes bobbin-net a yard and
a half wide) paid thirty pounds a year. The second
patent was ultimately abandoned in August, 1823,
infringements of it having taken place.
It was not surprising that, on the removal of
the monopoly arising from this patent, a multitude
of persons became desirous of embarking in a trade
which had hitherto yielded a very large profit.
The bobbin-net machine occupies little space ; and
is, from that circumstance, well adapted for a do-
mestic manufacture. The machines which already
existed, were principally in the hands of the manu-
facturers ; but, a kind of mania for obtaining them
seized on persons of all descriptions, who could raise
a small capital ; and, under its influence, butchers,
bakers, small farmers, publicans, gentlemen's ser-
vants, and, in some cases, even clergymen, became
anxious to possess bobbin-net machines.
Some few machines were rented ; but, in most of
these cases, the workman purchased the machine he
employed, by instalments of from 31. to 61. weekly,
for a six-quarter machine ; and many individuals, un-
acquainted with the mode of using the machines so
purchased, paid others of more experience for in-
structing them in their use ; 50Z. or 60/. being some-
times given for this instruction. The success of the
first speculators induced others to follow the ex-
ample ; and the machine-makers were almost over-
whelmed with orders for lace-frames. Such was the
UPON MANUFACTURES. 351
desire to procure them, that many persons deposited
a large part, or the whole, of the price, in the hands
of the frame-makers, in order to insure their having
the earliest supply. This, as might naturally he ex-
pected, raised the price of wages amongst the work-
men employed in machine-making ; and the effect
was felt at a considerable distance from Nottingham,
which was the centre of this mania. Smiths not used
to "flat filing" coming from distant parts, earned
from 80s. to 42s. per week. Finishing smiths, ac-
customed to the work, gained from 31. to 41. per
week. The forging smith, if accustomed to his work,
gained from 51. to 61. per week, and some few earned
10Z. per week. In making what are technically
called insidesj those who were best paid, were gene-
rally clock and watch makers, from all the districts
round, who received from 31. to 41. per week. The
selters-up, persons who put the parts of the machine
together, charged 201. for their assistance ; and, a
six-quarter machine, could be put together in a fort-
night or three weeks.
(426.) Good workmen, being thus induced to desert
less profitable branches of their business, in order to
supply this extraordinary demand, the masters, in
other trades, soon found their men leaving them,
without being aware of the immediate reason : some
of the more intelligent, however, ascertained the cause.
They went from Birmingham to Nottingham, in
order to examine into the circumstances which had
seduced almost all the journeymen clockmakers from
their own workshops ; and it was soon apparent, that
the men who had been working as clock-makers in
Birmingham, at the rate of 25s. a week, could earn
352 EFFECT OF TAXES
21. by working at lace-frame-making in Notting-
ham.
On examining the nature of this profitable work,
the master clock-makers perceived that one part of
the bobbin-net machines, that which held the bobbins,
could easily be made in their own workshops. They
therefore contracted with the machine-makers, who
had already more work ordered than they could exe-
cute, to supply the " bobbin-carriers," at a price
which enabled them, on their return home, to give
such increased wages as were sufficient to retain
their own workmen, as well as yield themselves
a good profit. Thus an additional facility was
afforded for the construction of these bobbin-net
machines : and the conclusion was not difficult to be
foreseen. The immense supply of bobbin-net thus
poured into the market, speedily reduced its price ;
this reduction in price, rendered the machines by
which the net was made, less valuable ; some few
of the earliest producers, for a short time, carried
on a profitable trade ; but multitudes were disap-
pointed, and many ruined. The low price at which
the fabric sold, together with its lightness and
beauty, combined to extend the sale ; and ultimately,
new improvements in the machines, rendered the older
ones still less valuable.
(427.) The bobbin-net trade is, at present, both
extensive and increasing ; and, as it may, probably,
daim a larger portion of public attention at some fu-
ture time, it will be interesting to describe briefly its
actual state.
A lace-frame on the most improved principle,
at the present day, manufacturing a piece of net
UPON MANUFACTURES. 353
two yards wide, when worked night and day, will
produce six hundred and twenty racks per week.
A rack is two hundred and forty holes ; and as in the
machine to which we refer, three racks are equal
in length to one yard, it will produce 21,493 square
yards of bobbin-net annually. Three men keep this
machine constantly working ; and, they were paid (by
piece-work) about 25s. each per week, in 1830. Two
boys, working only in the day-time, can prepare the
bobbins for this machine, and are paid from 2s. to 4s.
per week, according to their skill. Forty-six square
yards of this net weigh two pounds three ounces ; so
that each square yard weighs a little more than
three-quarters of an ounce.
(428.) For a condensed and general view of the pre-
sent state of this trade, we shall avail ourselves of a
statement by Mr. William Felkin, of Nottingham,
dated September, 1831, and entitled " Facts and
Calculations illustrative of the Present State of the
Bobbin-net Trade." It appears to have been col-
lected with care, and contains, in a single sheet of
paper, a body of facts of the greatest importance.*
(429.) The total capital employed in the factories,
for preparing the cotton, in those for weaving the
bobbin-net, and in various processes to which it is
subject, is estimated at above 2,000,OOOZ., and the
number of persons who receive wages, at above two
hundred thousand.
* I cannot omit the opportunity of expressing my hope that
this example will be followed in other trades. We should
thus obtain a body of information equally important to the
workman, the capitalist, the philosopher, and the statesman.
A A
354
EFFECT OF TAXES
" Comparison of the Value of the Raw Material imported, with
" the Value of the Goods manufactured therefrom.
" Amount of Sea Island cotton annually used
" l,600,000lbs., value 120,000/. ; this is manufac-
" tured into yarn, weighing l,000,000lbs., value
" 500,000/.
" There is also used 25,000lbs. of raw silk, which
" costs 30,000/., and is doubled into 20,0001bs.
" thrown, worth 40,000/.
RAW
MATERIAL.
MANU-
FACTURE.
SQUARE
YARDS
PRODUCED.
Value
per
Sq. Yd.
TOTAL
VALUE.
Cotton, 1
1,600,000/68. J
Power Net .
Hand ditto .
Fancy ditto
6,750,000
15,750,000
150,000
a. d.
1 3
1 9
3 6
421,875
1,378,125
26,250
Silk, 25,000 Ibs.
Silk Goods .
750,000
1 9
65,625
23,400,000
1,891,875
" The brown nets which are sold in the Notting-
ham market, are in part disposed of by the agents
: of twelve or fifteen of the larger makers, i. e. to the
: amount of about 250,000. a year. The principal
f part of the remainder, i. e. about 1,050,OOOZ. a
1 year, is sold by about two hundred agents, who
* take the goods from one warehouse to another for
1 sale.
" Of this production, about half is exported in
' the unembroidered state. The exports of bobbin-
* net are in great part to Hamburgh, for sale at
* home and at Leipzic and Frankfort fairs, Ant-
* werp, and the rest of Belgium ; to France, by
UPON MANUFACTURES. 355
" contraband ; to Italy, and North and South
" America. Though a very suitable article, yet the
" quantity sent eastward of the Cape of Good Hope,
" has hitherto been too trifling for notice. Three-
" eighths of the whole production are sold unem-
" broidered at home. The remaining one-eighth is
" embroidered in this country, and increases the
" ultimate value as under, viz.
Embroidery. Increases Value. Ultimate Worth,
. .
" On power net . . . . 131,840 553,715
On hand net .... 1,205,860 2,583,985
"On fancy net .... 78,750 105,000
" On silk net 109,375 175,000
Total embroidery, ? , _ or R9fJ Ultimate ) 41 r 7no
wages, and profit, 1 1 > 5 -> 82 total value ] 3 > 417 70
" From this it appears, that in the operations of
" this trade, which had no existence twenty years
" ago, 120,OOOZ. original cost of cotton becomes,
" when manufactured, of the ultimate value of
" 3,242,700Z. sterling.
" As to weekly wages paid, I hazard the following
" as the judgment of those conversant with the
" respective branches, viz.
" In fine spinning and doubling, adults 255. ;
" children 7s. : work twelve hours per day.
" In bobbin -net making ; men working machines,
" 185. ; apprentices, youths of fifteen or more, 10s. ;
" by power, fifteen hours ; by hand, eight to twelve
" hours, according to width.
" In mending ; children 4s. : women 8s. ; work
" nine to fourteen hours, ad libitum.
A A 2
356 EFFECT OF TAXES
" In winding, threading, &c., children and young
" women, 5s. ; irregular work, according to the pro-
" gress of machines.
" In embroidery ; children, seven years old and
" upwards, Is. to 3s. ; work ten to twelve hours ;
" women, if regularly at work, 55. to 7s. 6d. ; twelve
" to fourteen hours.
" As an example of the effect of the wages of lace
" embroidery, &c. it may be observed, it is often the
" case that a stocking weaver in a country village
" will earn only 7s. a week, and his wife and children
" 7s. to 14s. more at the embroidery frame."
(430.) The principal part of the hand-machines
employed in the bobbin-net manufacture are worked
in shops, forming part of, or attached to, private
houses. The subjoined list will show the kinds of
machinery employed, and classes of persons to whom
it belongs.
Bobbin-net Machinery now at work in the Kingdom.
Hand Levers 6 -quarter 500 HandCir - )
7-quarter200 culars . . . \ M^ter 100
8-quarter 300 7-quarter 300
10-quarter 300 8-quarter 400
12-quarter 30 9-quarter 100
16-quarter 20 10-quarter 300
20-quarter 1 12-quarter 100
Hand Rotary 10-quarter 50 Hand Traverse, Pusher,
12-quarter 50 Straight Bolt, &c.,
averaging 5 quarters 750
1451
2050
Total hand machines . . 3501 carried over
UPON MANUFACTURES. 357
Brought over 3501
Power 6-quarter. . . 100
7-quarter. . . 40
8-quarter. . . 350
10-quarte-r. . . 270
12 quarter. . . 220
1 6-quarter. . . 20
Total power machines 1000
Total number of Machines . 4501
700 persons own 1 machine, 700 machines.
226 2 452
181 3 543
96 4 384
40 5 200
21 6 126
17 7 119
19 8 152
17 9 153
12 10 120
8 11 88
6 12 72
5 13 65
5 14 .... 70
4 16 64
25 own respectively 18, 19,
20,21,23,24,25,26,27,
28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36,
37, 50, 60, 68, 70, 75, 95,
105,206 1192
Number of 1
owners of > 1382 Holding together 4500 machines,
machines J
The hand workmen consist of the above-named
owners 1000
And of journeymen and apprentices 4000
5000
358 EFFECT OF TAXES
These Machines are distributed as follows .
Nottingham 1240
New Radford 140
Old Radford and Bloomsgrove 240
Ison Green 160
Beeston and Chilwell 130
New and Old Snenton 180
Derby and its vicinity 185
Loughborough and its vicinity 385
Leicester . 95
Mansfield 85
Tiverton 220
Barnstable 180
Chard 190
Isle of Wight 80
In sundry other places 990
4500
" Of the above owners, one thousand work in their
" own machines, and enter into the class of journey-
" men as well as that of masters in operating on the
" rate of wages. If they reduce the price of their
" goods in the market, they reduce their own wages
" first ; and, of course, eventually the rate of wages
" throughout the trade. It is a very lamentable
" fact, that one-half, or more, of the one thousand
" one hundred persons specified in the list as own-
*' ing one, two, and three machines, have been
" compelled to mortgage their machines for more
" than their worth in the market, and are in many
" cases totally insolvent. Their machines are princi-
" pally narrow and making short pieces, while the
" absurd system of bleaching at so much a piece
" goods of all lengths and. widths* and dressing at
UPON MANUFACTURES. 359
" so much all widths, has caused the new machines
" to be all wide, and capable of producing long
" pieces ; of course to the serious disadvantage,
" if not utter ruin, of the small owner of narrow
" machines.
" It has been observed above, that wages have
" been reduced, say 25 per cent, in the last two
" years, or from 24s. to 18s. a week. Machines
" have increased in the same time one-eighth in
" number, or from four thousand to four thousand
" five hundred, and one-sixth in capacity of produc-
" tion. It is deserving the serious notice of all
" proprietors of existing machines, that machines
" are now introducing into the trade of such power
" of production as must still more than ever depre-
" ciate (in the absence of an immensely increased
" demand) the value of their property."
(431.) From this abstract, we may form some
judgment of the importance of the bobbin-net trade.
But the extent to which it bids fair to be carried in
future, when the eastern markets shall be more open
to our industry, may be conjectured from the fact
which Mr. Felkin subsequently states, that, " We
" can export a durable and elegant article in cotton
" bobbin-net, at 4d. per square yard, proper for cer-
" tain useful and ornamental purposes, as curtains,
" &c.; and another article used for many purposes
" in female dress at 6d. the square yard."
(432.) Of Patents. In order to encourage the
invention, the improvement, or the importation of
machines, and of discoveries relating to manufactures,
it has been the practice in many countries, to grant
to the inventors or first introducers, an exclusive
360
EFFECT OF TAXES
privilege for a term of years. Such monopolies are
termed Patents ; and they are granted, on the pay-
ment of certain fees, for different periods, from five
to twenty years.
The following table, compiled from the Report
of the Committee of the House of Commons " on
Patents" 1829, shows the expense and duration of
patents in various countries :
COUNTRIES.
EXPENSE.
TERM
OF
YEARS.
Number
granted in Six
Years, ending
in 1826.
(.Rep. p. 243.)
S. d.
120
125
100
6 15
f 12
| 32
( 60
6 to 30
42 10
20 9 4
12 5 7
10 4 8
14
14
14
14
5 ~\
10 C
15 )
5, 10, 15
15
15
10
6
914
1091
1099
Austria
Spain* Inventor
,, Improver . . .
(433.) It is clearly of importance to preserve to
each inventor the sole use of his invention, until he
* The expense of a patent in Spain is stated in the Report
to be respectively 2000, 1200, and 1000 reals. If these are
reals of Mellon, in which accounts are usually kept at Madrid,
the above sums are correct ; but if they are reals of Plate, the
above sums ought to be nearly doubled.
UPON MANUFACTURES. 361
shall have been amply repaid for the risk and expense
to which he has been exposed, as well as for the talent
he has exerted in completing it. But, the degrees
of merit are so various, and the difficulties of legis-
lating upon the subject so great, that it has been
found almost impossible to frame a law which
shall not, practically, be open to the most serious
objections.
The difficulty of defending an English patent in
any judicial trial, is very great; and the number of
instances on record in which the defence has suc-
ceeded, are comparatively few. This circumstance
has induced some manufacturers, no longer to regard
a patent as a privilege by which a monopoly price
may be secured : but they sell the patent article at
such a price, as will merely produce the ordinary
profits of capital ; and thus secure to themselves the
fabrication of it, because no competitors can derive a
profit from invading a patent so exercised.
(434.) The law of Copyright, is, in some measure,
allied to that of Patents ; and it is curious to observe,
that those species of property which require the
highest talent, and the greatest cultivation, which
are, more than any other, the pure creations of mind,
should have been the latest to be recognized by the
state. Fortunately, the means of deciding on an
infringement of property in regard to a literary pro-
duction, are not very difficult ; but the present
laws are, in some cases, productive of consider-
able hardship, as well as of impediment to the
advancement of knowledge.
(435.) Whilst discussing the general expediency
of limitations and restrictions, it may be desirable to
362 EFFECT OF TAXES
point out one which seems to promise advantage,
though by no means free from grave objections. The
question of permitting by law, the existence of part-
nerships in which the responsibility of one or more of
the partners is limited in amount, is peculiarly im
portant in a manufacturing, as well as a commercial
point of view. In the former light, it appears cal-
culated to aid that division of labour, which we have
already proved to be as advantageous in mental as
it is in bodily operations ; and it might possibly
give rise to a more advantageous distribution of
talent, and its combinations, than at present exists.
There are in this country, many persons possessed of
moderate capital, who do not themselves enjoy the
power of invention in the mechanical and chemical
arts, but who are tolerable judges of such inventions,
and excellent judges of human character. Such
persons might, with great success, employ themselves
in finding out inventive workmen, whose want of
capital prevents them from realizing their projects.
If they could enter into a limited partnership with
persons so circumstanced, they might restrain within
proper bounds the imagination of the inventor, and
by supplying capital to judicious schemes, render
a service to the country, and secure a profit for
themselves.
(436.) Amongst the restrictions intended for the
general benefit of our manufacturers, there existed
a few years ago one by which workmen were for-
bidden to go out of the country. A law so com-
pletely at variance with every principle of liberty,
ought never to have been enacted. It was not,
however, until experience had convinced the 'egis-
UPON MANUFACTURES. 363
lature of its inefficiency, that it was repealed.* When,
after the last war, the renewed intercourse between
England and the continent became extensive, it was
soon found that it was impossible to discover the
various disguises which the workmen could assume ;
and the effect of the law was rather, by the fear of
punishment, to deter those who had left the country
from returning, than to check their disposition to
migrate.
(436*.) The principle, that Government ought to
interfere as little as possible between workmen and
their employers, is so well established, that it is im-
portant to guard against its misapplication. It is
not inconsistent with this principle to insist on the
workmen being paid in money, for this is merely to
protect them from being deceived ; and still less is it
a deviation from it to limit the number of hours
during which children shall work in factories, or
the age at which they shall commence that species of
labour, for they are not free agents, nor are they
capable of judging, if they were ; and both policy
and humanity concur in demanding for them some
legislative protection. In both cases it is as right
and politic to protect the weaker party from fraud
or force, as it would be impolitic and unjust to in-
terfere with the amount of the wages of either.
* In the year 1824 the law against workmen going abroad,
as well as the laws preventing them from combining, were
repealed, after the fullest inquiry by a Committee of the House
of Commons. In 1825 an attempt to re-enact some of the most
objectionable was made, but it failed.
364 THE EXPORTATION
CHAP. XXXIV.
ON THE EXPORTATION OF MACHINERY.
(437.) A FEW years only have elapsed, since our
workmen were not merely prohibited by act of Par-
liament from transporting themselves to countries in
which their industry would produce for them higher
wages, but were forbidden to export the greater
part of the machinery which they were employed to
manufacture at home. The reason assigned for this
prohibition was, the apprehension that foreigners
might avail themselves of our improved machinery,
and thus compete with our manufacturers. It was, in
fact, a sacrifice of the interests of one class of persons,
the makers of machinery, for the imagined benefit
of another class, those who use it. Now, indepen-
dently of the impolicy of interfering, without
necessity, between these two classes, it may be
observed, that the first class, or the makers of
machinery, are, as a body, far more intelligent than
those who only use it ; and though, at present, they
are not nearly so numerous, yet, when the removal
of the prohibition which cramps their ingenuity shall
have had time to operate, there appears good reason
to believe, that their number will be greatly in-
creased, and may, in time, even surpass that of
those who use machinery.
OF MACHINERY. 365
(438.) The advocates of these prohibitions in
England seem to rely greatly upon the possibility of
preventing the knowledge of new contrivances from
being conveyed to other countries ; and they take
much too limited a view of the possible, and even
probable, improvements in mechanics.
(439.) For the purpose of examining this question,
let us consider the case of two manufacturers of the
same article, one situated in a country in which labour is
very cheap, the machinery bad, and the modes of trans-
port slow and expensive ; the other engaged in manu-
facturing in a country in which the price of labour is
very high, the machinery excellent, and the means of
transport expeditious and economical. Let them both
send their produce to the same market, and let each
receive such a price as shall give to him the profit
ordinarily produced by capital in his own country.
It is almost certain that in such circumstances the
first improvement in machinery will occur in the
country which is most advanced in civilization ;
because, even admitting that the ingenuity to con-
trive were the same in the two countries, the means
of execution are very different. The effect of im-
proved machinery in the rich country will be per-
ceived in the common market, by a small fall in the
price of the manufactured article. This will be
the first intimation to the manufacturer of the poor
country, who will endeavour to meet the diminution
in the selling price of his article by increased industry
and economy in his factory ; but he will soon find
that this remedy is temporary, and that the market-
price continues to fall. He will thus be induced to
examine the rival fabric, in order to detect, from its
366 THE EXPORTATION
structure, any improved mode of making it. If, as
would most usually happen, he should be unsuccessful
in this attempt, he must endeavour to contrive im-
provements in his own machinery, or to acquire
information respecting those which have been made
in the factories of the richer country. Perhaps after
an ineffectual attempt to obtain by letters the infor-