women carried foot-stoves to unheated churches — ^when
candles and oil lamps were the only means of " lighting
up," and we went about the streets at night with dim lan-
terns—when women spun and wove and sewed with their
hands only, and all they accomplished was done at the
hardest — when in our country a young girl might almost
as reasonably attempt to reach the moon as to become an
artist-T-remembering all this it seems as if an army of
magicians must incessantly have waved their wands above
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INTRODUCTION xxxvii
us, and that human brains and hands could not have in-
vented and put in operation the innumerable changes in
our daily life during the last half-century.
When, in the same way, we review the changes that
have taken place in the domains of science, in scholarly
research in all directions, in printing, bookmaking, and
the methods of illustrating everything that is printed —
from the most serious and learned writing to advertise-
ments scattered over all-out-of-doors — when we add to
these the revolutions in many other departments of life
and industry, we must regard the nineteenth as the cen-
tury par excellence of expansion, and in various directions
an epoch-making era.
When we turn to our special subject we find an activ-
ity and expansion in nineteenth-century art quite in ac-
cordance with the spirit of the time. This expansion is
especially noticeable in the increased number of subjects
represented in works of art, and in the invention of new
methods of artistic expression.
Prior to this period there had been a certain selection
of such subjects for artistic representation as could be
called " picturesque," and though more ordinary and com-
monplace subjects might be rendered with such skill —
such drawing, color, and technique — as to demand appro-
bation, it was given with a certain condescension and the
feeling was manifested that these subjects, though treated
with consummate art,.were not artistic. The nineteenth
century has signally changed these theories.
Nothing that makes a part in human experience is now
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xxxviii WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
too commonplace or too unusual and mysterious to afford
inspiration to painter and sculptor; while the normal
characteristics of human beings and the circumstances
common to their lives are not omitted, the artist frequent-
ly endeavors to express in his work the most subtle ex-
periences of the heart and soul, and to embody in his
picture or statue an absolutely psychologic phenomenon.
The present easy communication with all nations has
awakened interest in the life of countries almost unknown
to us a half -century ago. So customary is it for artists to
wander far and wide, seeking new motives for their works,
that I felt no surprise when I recently received a letter
from a young American woman who is living and painting
in Biskra. How short a time has passed since this would
have been thought impossible !
It is also true that subjects not new in art are treated
in a nineteenth-century manner. This is noticeable in
the picturing of historical subjects. The more intimate
knowledge of the world enables the historical painter of
the present to impart to his representations of the im-
portant events of the past a more human and emotional
element than exists in the historical art of earlier cen-
turies. In a word, nineteenth-century art is sympathetic,
and has found inspiration in all countries and classes and
has so treated its subjects as to be intelligible to all, from
the favored children for whom Kate Greenaway, Walter
Crane, and many others have spent their delightful tal-
ents, to men and women of all varieties of individual
tastes and of all degrees of ability to comprehend and ap-
preciate artistic representations.
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INTRODUCTION xxxix
A fuller acquaintance with the art and art-methods of
countries of which but little had before been known has
been an element in art expansion. Technical methods
which have not been absolutely adopted by European and
English-speaking artists have yet had an influence upon
their art. The interest in Japanese Art is the most im-
portant example of such influence, and it is also true
that Japanese artists have been attracted to the study
of the art of America and Europe, while some for-
eign artists resident in Japan — notably Miss Helen
Hyde, a young American — have studied and practised
Japanese painting to such purpose that Japanese juries
have accorded the greatest excellence and its honors
to their works, exhibited in competition with native
artists.
Other factors in the expansion of art have been found
in photography and the various new methods of illustra-
tion that have flUed books, magazines, and newspapers
with pictures of more or less ( ?) merit. Even the paint-
ing of "posters" has not been scorned by good artists,
some of whom have treated them in such a manner as to
make them worthy a place in museums where only works
of true merit are exhibited.
Other elements in the nineteenth-century expansion
in art are seen in the improved productions of the so-
called Arts and Crafts which are of inestimable value in
cultivating the artistic sense in all classes. Another in-
fluence in the same direction is the improved decoration
of porcelain, majolica, and pottery, which, while not equal
to that of earlier date in the esteem of connoisseurs,
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^1 WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
brings artistic objects to the sight and knowledge of all,
at prices suited to moderate means.
In America the unparalleled increase of Free Libraries
has brought, not books alone, but collections of photo-
graphs and other reproductions of the best Painting,
Sculpture, and Architecture in the world, as well as
medals, book-plates, artistic bindings, etc., within reach
of students of art.
Art Academies and Museums have also been greatly
multiplied. It is often a surprise to find, in a compara-
tively small town, a fine Art Gallery, rich in a variety of
precious objects. Such an one is the Art Museum of
Bowdoin College, in Brunswick, Me. The edifice itself
is the most beautiful of the works by McKim that I have
seen. The frescoes by La Farge and Vedder are most
satisfactory, and one exhibit, among many of interest —
that of original drawings by famous Old Masters — would
make this Museum a worthy place of pilgrimage. Can
one doubt that such a Museum must be an element of
artistic development in those who are in contact with it ?
I cannot omit saying that this splendid monument to
the appreciation of art and to great generosity was the
gift of women, while the artists who perfected its archi-
tecture and decorations are Americans; it is an impres-
sive expression of the expansion of American Art in the
nineteenth century.
The advantages for the study of Art have been largely
improved and increased in this period. In numberless
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INTRODUCTION xli
studios small classes of pupUs are received; in schools of
Design, schools of National Academies, and in those of
individual enterprise, all possible advantages for study
under the direction of the best artists are provided, and
these are supplemented by scholarships which relieve the
student of limited means from providing for daily needs.
All these opportunities are shared by men and women
alike. Every advantage is as freely at the command of
one as of the other, and we equal, in this regard, the cen-
turies of the Renaissance, when women were Artists,
Students, and Professors of Letters and of Law, filling
these positions with honor, as women do in these days.
In 1859 T. Adolphus TroUope, in his "Decade of Ital-
ian Women," in which he wrote of the scholarly women
of the Renaissance, says : " The degree in which any social
system has succeeded in ascertaining woman's proper
position, and in putting her into it, will be a very accurate
test of the progress it has made in civilization. And the
very general and growing conviction that our own social
arrangements, as they exist at present, have not attained
any satisfactory measure of success in this respect, would
seem, therefore, to indicate that England in her nine-
teenth century has not yet reached years of discretion
after all."
Speaking of Elisabetta Sirani he says: "The humbly
bom artist, admirable for her successful combination in
perfect compatibility of all the duties of home and studio."
Of how many woman artists we can now say this.
Trollope's estimate of the position of women in Eng-
land, which was not unlike that in America, forty-five
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xlii WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
years ago, when contrasted with that of the present day,
affords another striking example of the expansion of the
nineteenth century.
Although no important changes occur without some
preparation, this may be so gradual and unobtrusive in its
work that the result appears to have a Minerva-like birth.
Doubtless there were influences leading up to the remark-
able landscape pau>ting of this century. The " Norwich
School," which took shape in 1805, was founded by
Crome, among whose associates were Cotman, Stark, and
Vincent. Crome exhibited his works at the Royal Acad-
emy in 1806, and the twelve following years, and died in
1 82 1 when the pictures of Constable were attracting un-
usual attention; indeed, it may be said that by his exhi-
bitions at the Royal Academy, Constable maugurated
modem landscape painting, which is a most important feat-
ure of art in this century.
Not forgetting the splendid landscapes of the Dutch
masters, of the early Italians, of Claude and Wilson, the
claim that landscape painting was perfected only in the
nineteenth century, and then largely as the result of the
works of English artists, seem? to me to be well founded.
To this excellence Turner, contemporary with Constable,
David Cox, De Wint, Bonington, and numerous others
gloriously contributed.
The English landscapes exhibited at the French Salon
in the third decade of the century produced a remarkable
effect, and emphasized the interest in landscape painting
already growing in France, and later so splendidly de-
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INTRODUCTION xHii
veloped by Rousseau, Corot, Millet, and their celebrated
contemporaries. In Germany the Achenbachs, Lessing,
and many other artists were active in this movement,
while in America, Innes, A. H. Wyant, and Homer Mar-
tin, with numerous followers, were raising landscape art to
an eminence before unknown.
Formerly landscapes had been used as backgrounds,
oftentimes attractive and beautiful, while the real purpose
of the pictures centred in the human figures. The dis-
tinctive' feature of nineteenth-century landscape is the
representation of Nature alone, and the variety of method
used and the differing aims of the artists cover the entire
gamut between absolute Realism and the most pronoimced
Impressionism.
About the middle of the century there emerged from
the older schools two others which may be called the
Realist and Idealist, and indeed there were those to whom
both these terms could be applied, both methods being
united in their remarkable works. Of the Realists Corot
and Courbet are distinguished, as were Puvis de Cha-
vannes and Gustaye Moreau among the Idealists.
Millet, with his marvellous power of observation, painted
his landscapes with the fidelity of his school in that art,
and so keenly realized the religious element in the peasant
life about him — the poetry of these people—that he por-
trayed his figures in a manner quite his own — at the same
time realistic and full of idealism. MacCoU in his " Nine-
teenth-Century Art" called Millet "the most religious
figure in modem art after Rembrandt/' and adds that "he
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xliv WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
discovered a patience of beauty, a reconciling, in the con-
cert of landscape mystery with labor."
Shall we call Bastien Lepage a follower of Millet, or say
that in these men there was a unity of spirit ; that while
they realized the poetry of their subjects intensely, they
fully estimated the reality as well ?
The "Joan of Arc" is a phenomenal example of this
art. The landscape is carefully realistic, and like that in
which a French peasant girl of any period would live.
But here realism ceases and the peasant girl becomes a
supremely exalted being, entranced by a vision of herself
in full armor.
This art, at once realistic and idealistic, is an achieve-
ment of the nineteenth century— so clear and straightfor-
ward in its methods as to explain itself far better than
words can explain it.
Contemporary with these last-named artists were the
Preraphaelites. The centre of this school was called the
Brotherhood, which was founded by J. E, Millais, W.
Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and William Mi-
chael Rossetti. To these were added Thomas Woolner
the sculptor, James Collins, and F. G. Stephens. Other
important artists known as Preraphaelites, not belonging
to the Brotherhood, are Ford Madox Brown and Bume
Jones, as well as the water-color painters. Mason, Walker,
Boyce, and Goodwin.
The aim of these artists was to represent with sincerity
what they saw, and the simple sincerity of painters who
preceded Raphael led them to choose a name which Rus-
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INTRODUCTION xlv
kin called unfortunate, "because the principles on which
its members are working are neither pre- nor post-Raphael-
ite, but everlasting. They are endeavoring to paint with
the highest possible degree of completion what they see
in nature, without reference to conventional established
rules; but by no means to unitate the style of any past
epoch. To paint Nature — Nature as it was around them,
by the help of modem science, was the aim of the Broth-
erhood."
At the time when the Preraphaelite School came into
being the art of other lands as well as that of England
was in need of an awakening impulse, and the Preraphael-
ite revolt against conventionality and the machine-like art
of the period roused such interest, criticism, and oppo-
sition as to stimulate English art to new effort, and much
of its progress in the last half-century is doubtless due to
the discussions of the theories of this movement as well
as of the works it produced.
Preraphaelitism, scorned and ridiculed in its beginning,
came to be appreciated in a degree that at first seemed
impossible, and though its apostles were few, its influence
was important. The words of Bume Jones, in which he
gave his own ideal, appeal to many artists and lovers of
art: "I mean by a picture a beautiful, romantic dream of
something that never was, never will be — in alight better
than any light that ever shone — m a land no one can de-
fine or remember, only desire — ^and the forms divinely
beautiful."
Rossetti's " Girlhood of Vurgin Mary," Holman Hunt's
" Light of the World," and Millais' " Christ in the House
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xlvi WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
of His Parents" have been called the Trilogy of Pre-
raphaelite Art.
Millais did not long remain a strict disciple of this
school, but soon adopted the fuller freedom of his later
work, which may be called that of modem naturalism.
Rossetti remained a Preraphaelite through his short life,
but his works could not be other than individual, and
their distinct personality almost forbade his being con-
sidered a disciple of any school.
Holman Hunt may be called the one persistent follower
of this cult. He has consistently embodied his convic-
tions in his pictures, the value of which to English art
cannot yet be determined. This is also true of the mar-
vellous work of Bume Jones ; but although they have but
few faithful followers, Preraphaelite art no longer needs
defence nor apology.
Its secondary effect is far-reaching. To it may be
largely attributed the more earnest study of Nature as
well as the simplicity of treatment and lack of convention-
ality which now characterizes English art to an extent
before unknown.
Impressionism is the most distinctive feature of nine-
teenth-century art, and is too large a subject to be treated
in an introduction — any proper consideration of it de-
mands a volume.
The entire execution of a picture out-of-doors was some-
times practised by Constable, more frequently by Turner,
and some of the peculiarities of the French impressionist
artists were shared by the English landscape painters of
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INTRODUCTION xlvii
the early part of the century. While no one could dream
of calling Constable an impressionist, it is interesting to
recall th^ reception of his " Opening of Waterloo Bridge."
Ridiculed in London, it was accepted in Paris, and is now
honored at the Royal Academy.
This picture was covered with pure white, in impasto, a
method dear to impressionists. Was Constable in ad-
vance of his critics ? is a question that comes involunta-
rily to mind as we read the life of this artist, and recall the
excitement which the exhibition of his works caused at
the Salon of 1824, and the interest they aroused in Dela-
croix and other French painters.
The word Impressionism calls to mind the names of
Manet, Monet, Pissaro, Mme. Berthe Morisot, Paul Ce-
zanne, Whistler, Sargent, Hassam, and many others.
Impressionists exhibited their pictures in Paris as early as
1874; not until 1878 were they seen to advantage in Lon-
don, when Whistler exhibited in the Grosvenor Gallery;
and the New English Art Club, founded in 1885, was the
outcome of the need of this school to be better represented
in its sp^ial exhibitions than was possible in other gal-
leries.
In a comprehensive sense Impressionism includes all
artists who represent their subjects with breadth and col-
lectiveness rather than in detail — ^in the way in which we
see a view at the first glance, before we have time to ap-
prehend its minor parts. The advocates of impressionism
now claim that it is the most reformatory movement in
modem painting; it is undeniably in full accord with the
spirit of the time in putting aside older methods and con-
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xlviii WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
ventions and introducing a new manner of seeing and rep-
resenting Nature.
The differing phases of Painting in the nineteenth cen-
tury have had their effect upon that art as a whole.
Each one has been important, not only in the country of
its special development, but in other lands, each distinc-
tive quality being modified by individual and national
characteristics.
In the early decades of the past century Sculpture was
"classic "and conventional rather than natural and sin-
cere. A revolt against these conditions produced such
artists as Rodin, St. Gaudens, MacMonnies, and many
less famous men who have put life, spirit, and nature into
their art.
In Sculpture as in Painting many more subjects are
treated than were formerly thought suited to representa-
tion in marble and bronze, and a large proportion of these
recent motifs demand a broad method of treatment — a
manner often called " unfinished " by those who approve
only the smooth polish of an antique Venus, and would
limit sculpture to the narrow class of subjects with which
this smoothness harmonizes.
The best sculptors of the present treat the minor de-
tails of their subjects in a sketchy, or, as some critics con-
tend, in a rough imperfect manner, while others find that
this treatment of detail, combined with a careful, compre-
hensive treatment of the important parts, emphasizes the
meaning and imparts strength to the whole, as no smooth-
ness can do.
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INTRODUCTION xlix
Although the highest possibilities in sculpture may not
yet be reached, it is animated with new spirit of life and
nature. Nineteenth-century aims and modes of expres-
sion have greatly enlarged its province. Like Painting,
Sculpture has become democratic. It glorifies Labor and
all that is comprised in the term " common, every-day life,"
while it also commemorates noble and useful deeds with
genuine sympathy and an intelligent appreciation of the
best to which humanity attains ; at the same time poetical
fancies, myths, and legends are not neglected, but are
rendered with all possible delicacy and tenderness.
At present a great number of women are sculptors.
The important commissions which are given them in con-
nection with the great expositions of the time— the ex-
ecution of memorial statues and monuments, fountains,
and various other works which is confided to them, testifies
to their excellence in their art with an emphasis beyond
that of words.
Want of space forbids any special mention of etching,
metal work, enamelling, designing, and decorative work in
many directions in which women in great numbers are
engaged; indeed, in what direction can we look in which
women are not employed— I believe I may say by thou-
sands — in all the minor arts ? Between the multitude that
pursue the Fine Arts and kindred branches for a mainte-
nance — ^and are rarely heard of — ^and those fortunate ones
who are commissioned to execute important works, there
is an enormous middle class. Paris is their Mecca, but
they are known in all art centres, and it is by no means
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1 WOMEN IN THE FINE ARTS
unusual for an artist to study under Dutch, German, and
Italian masters, as well as French.
The present method of study in Paris — in such acade-
mies as that of Julian and the Cokrossi — secures to the
student the criticism and advice of the best artists of the
day, while in summer — in the country and by the sea —
there are artistic colonies in which students lead a delight-
ful life, still profiting by the instruction of eminent mas-
ters.
Year by year the opportunities for art-study by women
have been increased until they are welcome in the schools
of the world, with rare exceptions. The highest goal
seems to have been reached by their admission to the
competition for the Grand prix de Rome conferred by
r£cole des Beaux Arts.
I regret that the advantages of the American Art Acad-
emy in Rome are not open to women. The fact that for
centuries women have been members and professors in
the Academy of St. Luke, and in view of the recent action
of r£cole des Beaux ArtSy this narrowness of the Ameri-
can Academy in the Eternal City is especially pro-
nounced.
One can but approve the encouragement afforded women
artists in France, by the generosity with which their ex-
cellence is recognized.
To be an officer in the French Academy is an honor
surpassed in France by that of the Legion of Honor
only. Within a twelvemonth two hundred and seventy-
five women have been thus distinguished, twenty-eight of
them being painters and designers. From this famous
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INTRODUCTION li
Academy down, through the International Expositions,
the Salons, and the numberless exhibitions in various
countries, a large proportion of medals and other honors
are conferred on women, who, having now been accorded
all privileges necessary for the pursuit of art and for its
recompense, will surely prove that they richly merit every
good that can be shared with them.
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Aarestrupi Marie Helene. Bom at Flekkef jord, Nor-
way, 1 829. She made her studies in Bergen, under Reusch ;
under Tessier in Paris; and Vautier in Diisseldorf. She
excelled in genre and portrait painting. • Her " Playing
Child " and " Shepherd Boy " are in the Art Union in
Christiania ; the *' Interior of Hotel Cluny " and a " Flower
Girl " are in the Museum at Gottenburg.
Abbatti Agnes Dean. Bronze medal, Cooper Union;
silver medal, Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics' Asso-
ciation. Member of American Water Color Society.
\No reply to circular^
Abbemai Mme. Louise. Officer of the Mirite des Arts ;
honorable mention. Salon of 1881; bronze medal, Paris
Exposition, 1900; Hors Concours, 1903, at Exposition of
Limoges. Bom at fitampes, 1858. Pupil of Chaplin,
Henner, and Carolus-Duran. She exhibited a " Portrait
of Sarah Bernhardt," 1876; "The Seasons," 1883; "Por-
trait of M. Abbema," 1887; "Among the Flowers," 1893;
"An April Morning,". 1894; "Winter," 1895, etc.
This artist has also executed numerous decorations for
ceilings and decorative panels for private houses. Her
picture of " Breakfast in the Conservatory " is in the Mu-
seum of Pau.