his predecessor is repiirted to have used, besides other wines,
eighty tuns of claret yearly. At this period it was customary
for the princes and nobles to bathe in wine.



January. The wine is racked off three times the first year
following the viutitge, twice the second year, once the third
year. Jt is then potable.

For red wine, the jnust is fermented on the skins.

The resulting stems, seeds, and skins are placed in a vat,
coveied with water, and fermented. The result is a wine from
which brandy is distilled.

Vinegar aud raisins are made on the same estate. See
llaraszthy oo " Grape Culture.*'

The wine-press of the Bible wa.s a vat, in which the juice
was expressed by the feet of uien who tramped the fruit there-
in, staining their legs and p:trnient with th« color of the tnn.^t.
Says Jacob of Judah : "lie washed his garments in wine,
and his clothes in the blood of graiws." Says Isaiah : " Where-



Dioscorides, Acteus, and others among the ancients were fore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like one

that treadeth in the wine fat." And again: "The



Fig. 7253.




Grape- Press.



acquainted with means of rendering the acid in spoilt wine
imperceptible, and of stopping the fermentation or corruption
by litharge. The introduction of sulphite of soda for this pur-
pose is modern.

William, Count of Hennegan, Holland, and Zealand, pro-
hibited the adulteration of wine in 1327, the first prohibition
of the kind recorded; and the mixture of litharge with wine
was made punishable by death, in the Duchy of Wurtemburg,
in the year lt>97.

Sulpiiurous-acid gas, produced by burning brimstone in the
ca«k previous to the introduction of the wine, has a tendency
to check fermentiition and purify the wiue, without imparting
to it any deleterious properties.

In France and other wine-producing countries, the old plan
of treading out the grapes is still employed. This is porformed
by men who dance to the sound of music, and i.-* preferred on
account of there being no liability to crush the seeds and
stalks of the bunches, which would impair the delicacy of the
flavor

Grape culture, for wine-making purposes, was, in this coun-
try, long almost exclusively confined to the banks of the Ohio,
but is now practiced in localities, such as the shores of the
Great Lakes, where it was formerly thought impracticable. In-
creased care and skill have developed varieties which may be
relied on almost as a sure crop in many parts of the great cen-
tral belt of the United States. California, however, appears
destined to be the great wine-producing region of the future;
the absence of frosts, and of exces-sive moisture at any time,
giving it advantages not possessed elsewhere.

The gathering of the grapes in the Buena Vista Vineyard, Cali-
fornia, is done in October and November. Men, with wooden
bo.xes similar to a claret-box, and holding 50 pounds of grapes
each, take a row of vines. They sever the grape-bunches with
scissors made for this purpose, fill their boxes, and carry them
to a wagon which attends upon every five men. Thirty-five
boxes form a load, and a man ^vilI fill forty in a day. The
boxes are elevated to the third story of the press-house- From
a platform on this story the grapes are passed to the hopper of
the crusher, which latter consists of two cylinders, 2A feet long
and 12 inches thick. A load is crushed in about six minuter,
two men attending to feeding the machine. The grapes are
crushed without mashing the seed«,and fall iotoa box beneath,
the juice running through the perforated false bottom and
being conducted by spouts to the vats on the basement floor,
where the initsi is allowed to settle for six hours, to remove im-
purities. The crushed grapes are removed to the press-box,
which is 6 feet square and 4 feet deep. The follower is moved
by an iron screw, tj feet long and 5 inches in diameter, having
a thread of slow pitrJi, to confer great power. It is said to de-
liver a pressure of 252,000 pounds. The side-pieces of the box
are slipped in, and small intervals occur between each, allowing
the escape of the must.

The press is filled with alternate layers of crushed grapes and
wooden cubei. 6 inches of grapes followed by 3-inch cubes,
and so on. It holds about 8,000 pounds of grapes, and the
resulting must joins that which preceded from the before-
mentioned box to the tanks on the ground-floor The pressing
occupies seventy minutes. After settling in the tanks, it goes
to the reservoir" It is then pumped intoa tank and distributed
to the fermenting-vats in the basement. Each of these vats
holds 4,000 gallons. In from eight to fifteen days it clears,
when the vat is filled with similar wine, and so remains (ill
175



treaders shall tread out no wine in tfifir presses. I
have made their vintage shouting to cease."

Wine-presses among the ancic-nt Egyptians were of
different kinds. One kind wa,-* a bag. in which the
grapes were put, and squeezed by means of twisting
the bag. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 7253)
is from a tomb at Beni-ihissan, and is so plain as to
require no detailed description. In another illustra-
tion, the ends of the bag are twisted in opposite di-
rections by a pole at each end in the hands of two
men.

In another illustration, taken from a tomb at

Thebes, the various operations of treading the pre.«s

and removing the musi to the jars in which itstand.s

to undergo fermentation are shown. After this

process it was stt^red in Hw//)//orrt>, or jars, which

were closed «ith a lid. luted with clay or pitch,

sealed, and then placed upright in the cellar.

The Romans had several different modes of expressing the

juice. The gi-apes were crushed beneath a wooden beam, or in

a press, the platen {pTelum)(}f which was driven down upon the

bed {torcular) by wedges. Scuietimcs a lever was used for the

purpo-'^e ; a pair of screws are shown in. a Pompeian painting.

The oil-pres.«es were of substantially similar construction.

The ti-eading operation was also common and is represented




Sffrian Wiiu-Press (Jrom Kitto).

in a mosaic of a temple of Bacchus at Rome It is substan-
tiallv the same as that used in the Syrian wine-press of modern
times, shown in the accompanying cut.

Wine-tast'er. A tube for witlnliawiiig liijuors
from a jar, bottle, or cask. It has a larger oiifiiiii!;
at the lower end and a .smaller one at the top.
Being thrust in at the bung-hole of a wine-cask, for
instance, it fills to the level of tlie wine outside of
it. The u^iper end being then stopped by the finger,




Winf-Trtsters.



WING.



2786



WINNOWING-MACHINE.



the tube is withdrawn and holds the liquid. A bu-
rette will answer lor taking a sam]ile from a bottle.

a in the accompanying cut shows a glass wine-taster dis-
covered at Pompeii, The larger end was plunged into the
antphom, and the small hole at the upper end stopped by the
finger while the utensil was lifted out of the pot of wine

6 is the ordinary Inkier used by wine-merchants and others.
Known as a sampling-tube or velinclte. Sometimes called a
tliif/-tube.

Wing. 1. A thill broad projcctioii, a.s the wings
ot a gudgeon, whith keep it from turning in the
wooden sliaft of whieh it forms the pivot. See
â– WiNG-GunoEox.

2. A vane of a rotating fan.

3. A sail of a windinill.

4. A side jirojeetiou of a building on one side of
the central or main portion.

5. A lateral extension of an abutment. See Wing-
wall.

6. (Fortification.) Tlie longer side of a erown or
horn work uniting it to the main work.

7. The siile, displayed portion of a dash-board.

8. A leaf of a gate or double door.

9. {Plow.) The laterally e.xtemling portion of a
])low-share which cuts the bottom of the liirrow.

10. (MiHinri.) A strip, commonly of leather, at-
tached to the skirt of the runner to sweep tlie meal
into the spout.

11. (Shipbuildintf.) a. The overhang deck of a
steamer before ami abaft the ])aildle-bo.\es. The
wing-ivalc extends from tlie paitdle-beam to the side,
and is also called the sponsna-riin.

h. A passage along the inside of a ship, between
the fore-and-aft cock-]iits, to give the carpenters ac-
cess to a leak. See Wixg-p.\ssage.

12. (Hydraulic Enrjincerinri.) a. An extension
endways of a dam, sometimes at an angle with the
main portion.

b. A side dam on a river .shore to contract the
channel. A notable in.stance of their use is men-
tioned on page 674, wliere the depth of water was
increased in the channel of Red River to rescue a
fleet of gun-boats.

13. A shoulder-knot or small epaulette.

14. One of the sides of the stage in a theater.
\Wuig and Wing. {Xtmliciil.) Said of a /orc-

and-aft vessel going before the wind, with her fore-
sail hauleil over to one side, and mainsail to the
othi'r side.

Wing-com'pass. A joiner's compass with an
arc-sliapi'd piece wliich passes tlirongh the opposite
leg, and is elam])i'd by a set-screw.

Wing'er. {Xnulical.) A smaller water-cask
stoweil in a vessel's hold where tlie sides contrac't
fore and aft, and are relatively smaller than those
amidships.

Wing-gud'geon. A metallic shaft forming a
journal for water or other wheels having wooden
axles. The wings are let into the ends of the wood
and contined liy wrought-iron bands put on hot,
wliicli liecome tiglit by shrinking.

â– Wing-pas'sage. (Shi/ybuildinff.) A passage-
way around the cabins of the orlop-deck in ships of
war, to allow access to the ship's side for repairing
during action.

Wing-rail. (Railway-engineering.) A guard-
niil at a switch. See GuAitD-UAiL.

Wing-tran'som. (Shipbuildinri.) A nearly
straight ami horizontal timber in t)ie stern of a ves-
sel, extending across between the fashion-pieces, in
front of the stern-post and near its head. From it
spring the timbers of the cojintcr, or overhanging
portion of the stern. The vnng-traiisom is slightly
rounded aft and upward, and is tlie uppermost tran-
som of the stern-frame.



â– Wing-vrall. One of the lateral walls of an abut-
ment wliich form a sujiport and ])roteetion thereto,
to prevent tlie access of water to the rear and act as
breast-walls to support the
bank. _ Fig. 7257.

Fig. 7256.




c-



Win^-Gitd^eon.



Wing-Walh.



"Wink'er. {Saddkry.) A si^nare or sliieli.1-
shaiii.-il [lifCf on t'iiuh sklc of tlie liiiiUe to roiiliiM' the
hor.sc's ntti'iitiuii aliead. A blind, hUudcr, ovfdin/.a:

Wink'er-leath'er. {>S<tdtUcr>/.) A lu-iivy glazed
lt.';itlii*r iisimI ns tlu- oiU>.i(k' i>iece of a winker.

Wiiik'er-plate. (Saddlcrtf.) A Hietallic jilate
sli^ilitly (li.slu'tl, nsfil to give form anil tiininess to

llli- wiltkri'.

Wink'er-strap. {Saddlery.) A straji attat-heil
to the in>wn-i)iecu of a bridle, extending down the
forehead a few incites, then branching off to each
side, having the lower ends attached to the winkers;
nst'd to hi>Id tlie latter in their projter i>osition.

Win'niug. {M'niimj.) a. A new oju-ning.

h. A I'urtion of a coal-field to be woiked. In
British i»racticc there are fonr systems : —

1. Pillars Vinii rooms, cnWeA post nti't stall, viherQ the ]n\)&TS
left beiir such proportion to the coal excavated as is just ade-
quate to the support of the superincumbent strata.

2. Working with post ami stall, witli extra-sized pillars, a
part of whieh are removed when the coal is worked out and
tlie regular working is over.

3 Working with post and stall, leaving very heavy pillars,
which are all cut away when working backward towards the pit,
allowing the ceiling to fall, following the retreating workmen

4. The tunsi-way ; driving the gallery to the far end of the
projected working, and then working backward, clearing out all
the coal (for instance) and allowing the ceiling to cave in.

â– Wm'niiig-head'way. {Minimj.) A headway
drivrn t(» ■•\i.l(irc and ojteii out a coal-seam.

Win'now-ing-ma-chine', Jlorc often called a
fanning-niill by those wlnt use it. in this country.
A machine in whieh grain, accompanied by ehait',
dirt, cheat, cockle, grass-seeds, dust, straw, and
other foal, either or all, is subjected to a shaking
action on riddles and sieves in succession, the wliile
an artifieial bla.st of wind is driven against it on and
through the sieves, and as it falls from one to another.

We derive it from Britain, which obtained it from Holland in
171". It was introduced into Scotland by Meikle, the father of
that Meikle who invented thrashing-niaciiines.

The English word is de-
rived from the idea of making
an artificial blast by means
of a fan ; and the specific
mechanical purpose is to
separate grain from chaff by
a blast of wind acting upon
the latter, which is lighter
than the grain. The oldest
representations that we have
of the process of winnowing
are in the Egyptian tombs,
where men with scoops are
throwing the grain up into
the air, so that the passing
wind may drive off the chaff
The shovel, the sieve, and
the fan were the tools em-
ployed "Clean provender
which hath been winnowed Winnowing tn Egt/pt (1500 B. c. ).
with the shovel and with the

fan. " — Isaiah xxx. 24 " Like as grain is sifted with a sieve '*
— Amos ix 9 For this purpose, exposed situation^ on tlie
tops of hills were chosen ; and in the illustrations and Srrip'un^
references, it will be noticed that the tramping or thr.i.'^hiiig
was performed in the open air, contrary to our usu.-il [inic-
tice, but persevered in in the Eitstern countries (o thi-^ d-v
The climate in that part of the world is Dot so v;4ri iLIe ;.;i our




WINZE.



278/



WIRE.



own; and while Palestine and Syria were blessed witli the
early and latter rain, yet the interval was dry, and full depend-
ence could he placed on the state of the weather. In Upper
Egypt, rain w;is and is a rarity, a.^ we learn from Herodotus,
the father of hi.story, and from modern geographers. In Lower
Egypt, as the Mediterrauem, the climate is more moist, as
might be expected from its vicinity to so large a body of water.
We do not know at how early a date artificial devices were
made use of to create a draft of air, but it was in the remote
past, and the :<cripture references are frequent. " Jlis fau is
in his hand, and he will thoroughly purge his tloor" ; that i.-^,
cleanse or clean, by separating foreign and useless matters ; the
fan is still used for this purpose in several forms. In some
Ea,stern countries, the ordinary fan, on a large scale, is held in
the band, and made efficacious in blowing away the chafT as it
and the grain descend from a riddle held aloft and shaken by
another man. The writer still recollects one form in which the
bars of a revolving reel were furuished with cloths and rotated
by a hand-crank, the concern being six or seven feet long and
having its bearings in posts of a frame standing upon the barn




I 'Wip'er-wheel. A cam-wlieel placed below the
shank ol' a tilt-hamnu-i- to lilt it periodically, allow-
iiij; it to fall by its own weight.

I The motion is found in many other machines, such
as stamping-mills for ore and stone, etc.

Wire. A metallic rod, thread, or filament of small
and uniform diameter. The largest size, numbered
UOoO. of the Birmingham wire-gage, has a diameter
of .451 inch ; but smaller sizes even than this, except
when drawn out to considerable lengths, are geu-

1 erally known as bars or rods. See Wire-gage.

j Lead wire for the manufacture of bullets may

1 considerably exceed the above diameter.

1 Wire is usually cylindrical, but it is also made of
various other forms, as oval, half-round, sipiare, and
triangular, and of more complicated shapes for small
pinions ; for forming the pattern on blocks used in
ealico-priutiug, and for other purposes. See PiNioN-

WIIIE.

Fig. 7202.



« o D n a A o O



* ♦



kU-



English Winnowitig-Machine.

floor. It is among the histories of the machine that when
it was introduced in Scotland, certain sensitive persous pro-
nounced it an impious device, as " it raised a wind when the
Lord had made a caUn " This is another inflection of the old
opposition that met Kepler and Galileo

Fig. 7259 illustrates a macliiue, still in use, invented by
Gooch of Xorthampton, England, in ISIAI. It embraces the
important features of the more modern machines : the rotating
fan, the shaking-riddle, and sieves for sorting the grain and
separating extraneous matters. See also Faxning-mill.

Winze. (Mining.) a. A sliaft sunk from one
level to anotlier for conitnuniuatiou or ventilation.

b. A wheel and axle for hoisting.

"Wip'er. 1. {Vah'e Motion.) A cam which pro-
jects from a horizontal shaft and acts periodically
upon a toe whose elevation lifts the valve-rod and
pup pet -valve.

The iviper has usually a rotary reciprocation; when the
rotary motion is continuous, it becomes a wiper-wheel, which
may have a number of cams acting consecutively in the course
of a revolution. See also Wiper- wheel.



^^



r-



e' e



Wires for Mechanical Uses and for Music- Printing.
Wire was originally made by beating the metal into thin



strips



and rounding it with a
Fig.




o^^;3C3C53 A



m"X



Fig 7260.



Fig. 7261.




^^^




Wiper arui Toe.



Wiper- Wheel.



2. {Small-arTtis.) A steel implement having two
twisted branches ; it is screwed on the end of the
ramrod, and carries a piece of cloth or some tow for
cleaning out the bore of a musket. One accompanies
each musket issued to the troops. Those of large
size, used for cleaning out cannon, are lixed on a
wooden statr, and are called worms.

The wiper for ordnance is called a sponge.



plates, and then cutting it into

hammer. The sacerdotal drc^s

of Aaron had interwoven shreds

of gold, which were obtained

by this process, doubtless. The

interweaving of gold threads in-
to dress-stuffs is mentioned by

Pliny, who ascribes the inveii-

tion to King Attains; but it

was practiced in Egypt and in

Oriental countries before the era

of that monarch

Gold wire is found attached

to rings bearing the date of

Osirtaten I., 1740-1696 b. c.
In ancient times, and, indeed,

during the Middle Ages, gold

and silver were almost, if not _^ _ ,_, _

the only, metals which were f^^^^^yi'^'^y ^^^^ ^/\

formed into wire. In the reign

of Elizabeth, iron and brass wire ^^^-^,^„, -^o,o-><i 2 A

were both manufactured and ^^4^«&w<C^,^</'Ss^^ W

imported into England. Copper

wire was first made in England

in the seventeenth century.
Beckman states that *' as long

as the work of wire-making was

performed by the hammer, the

artists of Nuremberg were called

wire-smiths; but after the in-
vention of draioin^ wire, they

were called wire-flrawt rs or

wire-millers- Both these appel-
lations occur in the history of

Augsburg as early as the year

ISol, and in that of Nuremberg

in 13'iU ; so that according to the

best information I have been
I able to obtain. I must class the
I invention of the drawimi-iron,
I or proper wire-drawing, among

those of the fourteenth cen-
tury."
The art was not introduced

into England till the sixteenth

century, but had attained great

excellence in the reign of

Charles I. See Dr.\w-pl.\te.
This does not fully indorse the

ascription of the invention to

Rodolph of Nuremberg, a. d.

1410, but he may have much

improved the art; mills were

erected in Nuremberg, litiS.

The first wire-mill in Englnnd

waa erected atMortiake, in 16613. U"/r. s fur Sitv^-Fasteninss.etc.




wf^m\\m\ p




!\ i\ a ,



U



[5 t



WIRE.



2788



WlRE-ANNEALlNG.



a (Fig. 72621 shows forms of round, oval, half-round, square,
and triangular wires.

b, pinion-wires for watch-makers,

c c', di-aw-plate and music wiie-

d, music, as printed with wire typp.

e e\ fancy wires made for calico-printing rollers ; example of
the elTttct of association of the various patterns.

fg k (Fig. 7203), Godfrey's wire shoe-peg.

(, Wickersbam's short-twist round-thread wire.

j, Blake and LJbby's lenticular uire-nail.

k I, Smith's polygonal metallic peg.

nt n, Townsend's polygonal wire, before and after twisting.

o /», Towuseud's wire ; thread raised by pressuie.

g, Dudley's angular wire, with grooved faces.

r, mode of making Dudley's wire.

5, Proctor's wire, with serrated edges for burring and feed-
cylinders.

t, Beatty's flat perforated wire.

«, Bigelow's shoe-wiiv, circumferential grooves ; no thread.

The general process of niaimfacturing iron wire
on a considerable scale is as follows : —

The rods, from i to J inch in diameter, received from the
rolling-mills in bundles, are heated and rerolied in grooved roll-
ers, one above the other, so that the rod runs from the first roll
to the second, and so on, without reheating. The rollers run
with great rapidity, reducing the rod to a coarse wire which is
then passed through the successive holes iu the draw-plate.
The Dr.\w-plate (which see) is a flat piece of hard steel having
holes corresponding to the various "numbers or .'*izes of wire.

The best are made of a combined plate of highly tempered
steel and wrought-iroa. The holes are taperiug, the smallest
opening being on the steel side through which the wire first
enters. For drawing very fine wire, in which great uniformity
is required, perforated rubies or other hard stones are fixed in
the plate. The wire is annealed and drawn cold. The ma-
chinery includes a draw-bench, which lifts the wire from a reel
to the first hole in the draw-plate, from which it passes to an-
other reel or drum on whicli it is wound to be again drawn
through the next smaller hole in the draw-plate, and so on
down until it is reduced to the required size. It re<iuires to be
annealed several times during the process. Grca.^e and wax
are used for lubricating. The plan of covering brass wire with
a film of copper has been lately introduced ; this proves of
great service in drawing, and can be wholly removed at the
last annealing. The rapidity of drawing is regulated accord- '
ing to the ductility of the metal and size of the wire ; as it be- j
conies attenuated the speed may be increased ; that used for |
iron and brass varies from twelve to forty-five inches per sec- :
ond according to size, while the finer kinds of gold and silver 1
wire are drawn at the rate of sixty or seventy inches per sec- j
ond.



Fig 7265.





Fowler'' s Sheet- Metal
Wire-Machine.



Fig. 72C4.




Wire-Drawing Frame,



Fig. 7264 illustrates the wire-drawing frame employed for
sizes smaller than No. 19 ; a a are tubs in which are placed a
series of upright reels for containing the coils of wire. One
end of the wire is attached to one of the drums 6, revolved by
suitable gearing beneath, by which it is drawn through the
die-plate in the manner previously described. The frame may
be provided with any desired number of drums ; but four arip;
shown in the figure.

Fowler, January 5, 1869, makes wire of sheet-metal, cutting
it into strips between pairs of rollers with interlocking sharp-
edged ridges and grooves. The lower figure shows, on an en-
larged scale, a vertical section through a pair of rolls. See also
his patent, No 87,557-

A similar process is used in cutting shirrs from a ribbon of
india-rubber. See Fig 4489

Silver vdve, in which the most delicate tests could detect do



variation in diameter, has been
drawn through plates of rubies to
a length of ITU miles.

Very fine gold and platinum
wires, used for the sptder-lines of
telescopes, are fnruicd by coat-
ing the metal with .«ilver, which
is then drawn down to a great
tenuity, after which the silver
coating is removed by nitric iicid,
leaving an almost iuvi?ible in-
terior wire, which has been so
attenuated that a mile in length
weighed only a gniin.
L Chelot, a Belgian manufacturer, makes a pentagonal wire.
Threaded wire — cable wire — for boots and shoes, made
under patents : —

Prosser, 116,218, June 20, 1871.
Wickersham, 118,318, August 22, 1871.

See also Fig 3568, page 1648.

The modern uses of wire are almost innumerable : —

Telegraphy, cables for suspension-bridges, ropes for ships'
riggiug. hoisting, etc ; fences, strings for musical instruments,
hoop-skirts, pins and needles, shoe-sole fastenings (see Fig. 7263\
are some of its manifold apitlications. Twined broom-wire is a
considerable item. Culinary and table utensils are extensively
made from white-wire. It is used in the manufacture of cards,
heddles, reeds for looms, and, when woven, is employed in
flour, paper, and other machinery. Woven wire of iron,
brass, and copper is made into baskets, screens, sieves, cages,
dish-covers, and a great variety of other objects.