with sauK- whieh ure completely tiui.-«hed, niitkiii<; tip a juicket
of from l4i) to '3HJ sheets ; these are suhjeetud to tue action of the
second hammer, under which they are parsed twice in a similar
Fig. 4506,
^
Russia Sheet-Iron {H'tmriurs and
furnace!')
manner, which com-
pletes the smoothing
process.
After the second
hammering, the
p:icket is opened,
the surface of each
sheet is again
cleaned with a wet
broom, and it is set
in a Vertical rack to
cool ; it is then
sheared to the di-
mensions of 28 X 5i5
inches
Prnfessor Punipel-
ly.who witnes-ed the
proress eniployeii in
the works at Nijoi
Tagilsk, attributes
thesuperioriby of the
Russian product in
great part to the
cleanliness observed
and the skill and
carefuhiess of the
workmen. lie stages
that when thin
sheets are required,
the rolling is repeated a third time in packages of four or si.K.
The spotted sheets are separated into two inferior classes, and
their diminution in value is deiluct«j from the workmen's pay.
The fire-proof bricks used in lining the furnace are made of a
fine quartz sand, merely sprinkled with lime-water before being
molded and burned.
By another account, the rollers used are not formed in a
lathe, hut ca.-*t at once of the requisite smootlines:* and regular-
ity in mold< rubbed over with graphite While the plates are
being rolled, the edges arc kept free from gaps by paring them
with large shears. They are then placed in picks of from 10 to
20 on a moving bench, which pLisse-s them to and fro under a
hammer of 40 poods' weight ; both sides are alternately exposed
to it^ action, and a man carefully brushes off the scales that are
continually produced on the surface- The pirings are mixed
with half their weight of charcoal and converted iuto bar-iron.
Herbrrt 15any, late director of estates antl iron-
works of Vuiek.sa, thus describes the manuf.ieture : —
The refined iron is hammered under the tilt-hammer into
ntirrow slab-i, calculated to produce a sheet of fiui^Ued iron,
5S inches by 2S inches, weighing wlieu finished from 6 to
12 pounds. These slabs are put in the reheiting-furnaces,
heated to a red heat, and rolled down to a sheet in three opera-
tions. These are .subse(iuently hammered to reduce tlie thick-
ness and coufer the glance, k nuuiber of these sheets, having
been again heatc 1 to a red heat, have charcoal-powder sifted be-
tween them. The pile, then receiving covering and a bottom in
shape of a sheet of thicker iron, is placed under a heavy ham-
mer; the bundle, grii.><pcd with tongs by two men, is pulled
backward and forward by the gang, so that every part may he
well hannnered. When the redness goes off, they are finished,
80 far as this pirt of the opi-ration goes, and have received some
of the glance or necessary pilis i. Tiiey are then agiiu heat^-ii
atid are rolli-d between cold finished sheets. Thev are again
h immerc 1, and, after thi-* process, are finished as far as thick-
ness and :f!ance are coui-erneil.
Thrown down separately to cool, they are taken to the shears
an 1 trimmed- Each sheet is then weighed, and after being thus
as.-iorte 1 in wcighU, tlu'V an^ linallv .-Jortcd into firsts, se<'onds,
ami third-i, according to tlieir alanrt and freedom from Haws
and splits. A fir.-it-class sheet must be like a mirror, without a
Bpot in it.
The general weight per sheet is from six to twelve pound'', the
larger demauti being from ten to eleven pounds; but they are
made weighing as much as thirty pounds, and may then almost
be called thin boiler-plates, being used for stoves, etc.
The appearanie of Russia iron is imparted to sheet*: (No. 22
wire gage) by dipping liiem while warm in a mixture, the cnn-
si.stency of moUuiscs, of chalk, porcelain-clay, and graphite, in
equal parts. When dried, they are farther robed and anin-alcd,
and afti-rward dipped in a pickle of 1 part sulphuric acid to 3
water till free from scales, then allowed to remain a short time
in a lye of 1 potatih to 20 water, filtered ; afterward washed with
Clearwater and smoked in an oven heated with light wood;
the soot is burned off !is the heat increases, and a carburet is
formed on the surface with which it is closely combined. The
plates are now gradually permitted to cool, and then hammered
or rolled and tempered in a tightly closed chamber lined with
fire-brick, when tiiey may be again lightly hammered or pjist-ed
through the polishing-rolls.
At the sheet-iron works in Brooklyn, an engine of 200 horse-
power drives an automatic steam-hammer weighing seven tons.
The roiled sheet iron is greased and arranged in packages of
thirty or more sheets, liich sheet is about 2J feet wide and 7
feet long. The i)acks are then run into an oven and exposed to
heat until the surface has attained the proper degree of oxida-
tion. The packs are tlien transferred to the hammer, all the
sheets in the pjck being hammered at once. The anvil is mov-
able, and the workmen change the position of the pack at each
stroke of the hammer, so that every portion of the iron will be
acted upon.
At the McKeesport Iron-Works, Wood's process is used. A
heavy haumter falls vertically on the sheets with rapid blows as
they are passed over an anvil, the face of the haumier and the
anvil being pitted with small indentations. It is the passage
under this hanmier that does the planishing, giving the even
surface, mottled finish, and density of fiber which characterize
the Russian. The charcoal iron is rolled iuto bars and cut, the
scale is removed, after which it is rolled into sheets of diflerent
thirkncs?es, then cold rolled, then heated to a cherry-red, and
pas.sed under the planishing-hanmier three sheets at a time.
The following are condensed descriptions of United StJites
patents for modes of making sheet-iron similar to the Riissi.in :
No. 2,813, Wood, 10, 12, 1842. Rolled in usual manner, but
left thicker: oxide removed by acid ; cleaned and dried ; coated
with linseed-oil; two such plates placed between two otliers;
the pack heated to a cherry-red and rolled repeatedly till the
gloss is ohtained.
No. 2,824, Guilford, 22, 10,1842 Scale removed by acid;
washed and dried ; subjectt^d to mutual friction in a box with
lid aiid stampers; heated to blue color; passed, while hot,
thrcugli hardened and polislied rolls.
No ^8,048, Wood, 15, 4, 1851. Similar to No. 2.813, but tlie
pack Is rolled between shield-plates The latter eventually be-
come inside plates, being scaled, oiled, heated, and rolled as
the others. Smoothed and glared by cold rolling between
shield-plates.
No. 9,075, McCarty, 26, 6, 1852. Plates are scaled by acid
bath and zinc in a lead pan during efl"ervescence ; washed and
dried ; heated to cherry-red in a lead bath ; ridled while hot ;
nifittlcd marks given by hammer-dressing on the rolls.
English patent. No- 14,244, 1852 The sheets are rolled, piled,
in fours, and rerolled, trimmed, heated, rolled in packs, heated,
packed (20 sheets) with intervening charcoal, hammered with a
::5l)-ponnd hammer; unpaiked, packed (40 sheets) without ,
chiircoitl, one hot and one cold sheet alternately ; haumiered by
aimO-pounil hammer; annealed and trimmed.
No, 10,047, McCarty, 27, 0, 1853. Planished rolls to give mot-
tled marks to the iron sheets.
No 10,482, Pomeroy, 31, 1, 1854. Iron plates painted with a
composition of graphite, charcoal, and soot or boneblack, diluted
with anything and put on with a brush : heat and roll
No. 21,fiU2, Morris. 5, 10, 18&8. Making a mottled, chilled-
iron roll for rolling sheet-iron. The rolls are chilled, turned,
polished : dotted with wax according to taste ; immersed in acid
bath to etch in the intervals ; placed in a lathe and rubbed with
emery and oil to take off the sharp edges.
No" 21,772, Morris, 12, 10, IS5S. Siicet-iron of carefully Fe-
lected and prepared metal is passed between mottled rollers (ns
above), plai ed in a mutfle, heated to redness in a furnace ; made
into a pack of ten, with intervening charcoal ; the pack placed
on an anvil, which is made to travel to and fro beneath a gang
of hammers; reheated; rehammered; annealed.
No. 21,817, Chandler, 19, 10, 1858. Sheets are rubbed with
or dipped into a paste of clay or peat, and metallic oxides;
rolled, cleaned, made into a pack, and rerolled.
No 31 ,184, Morris, 22, 1, 1861. Rolled sheets are coated with
oil, boxeil. placed in a muffle, and heated to OOll*^ Fah, ; ham-
mered in tlie pack to combine the carbonized tcale and form a
carbureted surface.
No. 32 341, Wood, 14, 5, 1861. Rolled sheets are annealed at
a dull white heat; cooled; rolled between corrugated roils to
break scale, then between plain rolls; no acids; coat surface
with oil and graphite; heat to bright red; roll in packs; rol.s
covered with oil and graphite
No 3;J,341, Wood, 3, 9, ISJl. Rolled plates are warmed and
di[»ped in a bath of water, chalk, poreclain-clay, and graphite;
withdrawn and dried; pack of ten plate-* heated to bright red
and rolled : acid bath to remove scale ; alkaline bath to develop
color ; water bath ; dried ; heated in a smoky oven to cover sur-
RUSSIA SHEET-IRON.
2007
RYND.
face with carbon deposit, which becomes embodied in the iron ; I
cooled; planished or rolled; tempered.
No 33,214. Kiess, 3, 9, IS.Jl Rolled plates are dipped in a J
bath of chalk, porcelaiun-lay, and grapaite; dried, packed,
heated, rolled, and annealed.
No. 3:i,S44,MiDiniel and Harvey, 3,12, 1861. Vacnum press-
ure in t.ie removal of acid hquor, and subsequent alkaline
treatment.
No. 31,294, Dixon, 4, 2, 1862. Rolled plates scaled by acid
bath; washei with adaesive, or rye-water ; swabbed at less than
a red heat with an enamel composition : kept at that heat for ]
ten hours in an oven ; sheets placed in an annealing-bo.t with I
interposed charcoal-dust, and heated ; rolled in p.icks and an- j
nealed.
No 46,974, Pratt, 14, 2, 18155. Sheet-metal immer-ed in acid
bath at a prescribed heat ; removed, scrubbed, and inunersed
in alkaline bath ; brushed with rotary brushes while wet ;
heated to dryness; immersed in oil bath at 100^ to l.jU^ Fah. ;
dripped, and passed between polished steel-rollers ; buffed by
leatller-rollers and chalk-dust ; colored over charcoal furnace.
No 48,918, EUs,25, 7, 186.5 Sheets annealed ; placed loosely
in a cast iron box, with scale of oxide, animal charcoal, coke,
lime, or other decarbonizing or cutting agents; agiUited while
heated in the furnace.
No. 50,203, Grey, 26. 9, 1865- Heats the sheets previous to
finishing; cools to a point below cherry-red ; rolls without re-
moving scale ; repeats operation.
No. 52,647, Perkins, 13, 2, 1.866. Cleans and brightens me-
chanicallv :' then heats in an oven to develop color.
No. 53.476, Perkins, 27, 3, 1866. Sheets packed with inter-
vening iron turnings; heated, rolled, annealed
No. 53,253, Allen and Hinsdale, 20, 3, 186';. A fagot of iron
has top and bottom steel.plates ; heated, rolled into a bar ;
bar rolled into sheets : oxide removed by acid bath ; washed ;
a pack often heated to redness and rolled.
No. 56,759. Jones, Spaulding, and Perkins, 31, 7, 1866. The
wrought-iron melted in a crucible with nitrate of lead, muriate
of antimony, bone-dust, and graphite; stir; remove flux from
the top ; run into molds and roll as usual.
No. 61,034, Wood, 8, 1, 18 J7. After removing from the alka-
line bath, and washing as usual in hot water, tile plate is dried
and heated in an oven below redness; dipped in a bath of oil
ami turpentine.
No. 63,8il5, Miller, 16, 4, 1857. The rolled sheet, before a
final rolling, is heated nearly to welding point by g.is-jets, above
and below the plate, just before entering between the fiuishing-
roUers.
No. 77,111, Shaw, 21, 4, 18 j8. The heated iron, or the rolls,
are mopped with a composition of graphite, animal fat, soda,
and water
No 81,903, Hinsdale, 8, 9, 1868. The bar-iron is scaled;
washed ; dipped in a bath of clay 100, lampblack 1, prussiato
of potash .5; heated and rolled; the sheet-iron is dipped in
same composition and rerolled
No. 88,002, Atkins, 23, 3, 18,59. Roll into sheets, scale with
acid, neutralize with lime-water, oil ; lay up the iron in paclvs
with intervening charcoal and marble dust ; raise to Jl red-heat,
roll singly ; reheat, and roll in pairs, and so on ; rolling till
cold to develop polish ; heat in packs to anneal ; roll, and cool
slowly.
No. 95,554, Barker, 5, 10. 1869. Roll : remove scale by acid ;
wash; potash bath, in which they remain till rolled; roll in
packs, cold ; mottled rolls, made by a peculiar process of chili
casting
No. 98,3!H, Fields, 28, 12, 1869. Iron is of Franklioite 100,
good pig-iron 400 Sheet-iron is scaled ; dipped in a bath of
flour of zinc 1, graphite 1, tallow enough to make consistence
of cream, when melted ; a pick of three sheets is placed be-
neath a steam-hammer with a hard-wood face ; the anvil having
a similar face; grain of wood vertical.
No 103,.323. Grey, 24, 5, 1871. Scale removed by an acid bath
and subsequent heating on racks in an oven to raise the scale
in blisters. ,\ tliin, tenacious oxide forms on the surface and
is preserved. Rolled cold, first singly, then in packs ; annealed.
No, 103.577, Craig, 31. 5, 1870. Plates are built into packs
with intervening eliarcoal-dust ; heated nearly to welding heat ;
rolled in packs ; reviving the metal of the superficial oxide.
No- 114,956, Marshall, 16,5, 1871- Scale removed by saline
bath and furnace heating; dipped in lime-water; heated to
cherry -red and rolled in packs ; anneal
Rus'ti-ca'tion. (.Uasourif.) A genoral natne for
tliat speuies of iiia.sonry in wliich tlie surfaces of the
stones are left rougli, aiKl the .several courses ami
the stones in each course are distinctly marked hy
sunk joints or groo\'es, either chamfered or other-
wise cut.
Contrary to the import of the name, rmiication
admits of great variety of e.\pression and very
ehiborate tre;itnient. The faces of the stones are
sometimes venniculated or otherwise made rough ;
the tooling occupying a panel surrounded liy a
smooth border terminating in the arris of the chani-
fei-, which constitutes the projection of the face
above the surface of the sunk joint.
The varieties of rusticated work are known as rcr-
miculated, j)u;icturcd, frosted, stiilaciilcd, chamfered,
according to the character of the ornamentation of
the face, or some peculiarity of the salient edge.
Vcrmiculatcd has contorted tooling distantly re-
sembling worms, from which its name is derived.
Pimetiired Is picked full of holes in lines or ir-
regularly.
Frosted has a fine, even roughness, distantly re-
sembling hoar frost.
IStaladUcd has ornaments like icicles, in imitation
of those natural deposits from which the name is
derived.
Chamfered ; the salient panel has a beveled edge,
having an angle of 1-35° with the face.
Rus'tic Cham'fered Work. (Masonr;/.) The
chamlered eilgcs of the face of the ashlar have an
angle of 135° with the face, so that at the joint the
beveling will fcn-m a right angle.
Rus'tic Joint. (Masonr;/.) A sunken joint be-
tween stones, eitlier si|uaiv or <'liamfered.
Rus'tic Or'der. That kind of building in which
the faces of the stones are hatched or uir/r/edwith the
point of the hammer.
Rus'tic Quoin, (.l/asoi?)-//.) The a^hlaring at
the collier of a house or wall, projecting from the
face, and laid alternately stretcher and header with
nistic joints.
The quoins may have edges chamfered to an angle
of 135° with the face of tlie building, so as to make
a right angular joint. The faces of the stones are
usually tooled.
Rus'tic Work. 1. {Wood.) An imitation of
rough or jniiiiitive work. Funiiture for snminer-
hoiises and lawns, made of limbs of trees, taking
advantage of natural crooks and crotches to form
the shapes desired. See Gaiuien'-seat, Fig. 2159.
2. (Stone.) Masonry jagged over with a hammer to
an irregular surface. A margin around the joints
is recessed. This is known as the margin-draft.
When the face is made in imitation of ice, it is
called frosted rustic-trork. When contorted, it is
called rrrmiculatcd work.
Rust-joint. (Mdal-vorking.) A joint made
water-tight by a compound which oxidizes or sets
on exposure to the air ; as the following : —
Quickiv senilis. Sal-ammoniac in powder, by weight, 1 part ;
flour sulphur. 2 parts ; iron borings, 80 parts. Make toa paste
with water.
Slowfil setting. Sal-ammoniac in powder, by weight, 2 parts ;
flour sulphur, 1 part ; iron borings, 200 parts.
The latter cement is the better one if the joint be not re-
quired for immediate use.
Ru-the'ui-um. Equivalent, 52.1 ; symbol, iii'. ;
specific gravity, 11.4 ; nearly invisible. It is of a
gray color, hard and brittle". A rare metal found
associated with platinum. It was discovered by
Clans in 1845.
Rynd. (Grinding-miH.) The ball which sup-
ports the runner on the head of the spindle. See
Balange-uy.mj, F F, Fig. 536.
SABER.
2008
SACCHAROMETER.
S.
Sa'ber. (JFcapon.) A sword having a cnrvei.1
bliulo, siu'ciiiUy iulapted for cutting.
Three, kinds jice in general use in the armies of
Europe and America.
That for liuavy cavahy has a slightly curved,
heavy bhule.
The ligiit-cavalry saber has a lighter blade some-
what more curved.
Tiie horse-artillery salier i.s still shorter, lighter,
and more curved, and has but one branch to the
guard.
Sa-bot'. 1. A wooden shoe made of one piece
hollowt-l out hy boriug-touls and scrapers.
We learn from Cicero that }niri-icides at Rome were
fitted with a pair of wooden shoi?s lielbre tliey were
sewn up in tlie sack in whicli they were drowned.
Sabots are cherished l)y tiie whole Gallic race, and
might be vised with advantage by other people for
occasional protection on sloppy pavements and on
wet ground, wliile about the duties of the kitchen,
laundry, and kitehen-gardeu.
Sabots in France are divided into the grox and the fins: the
former being co^irse and sold at 14 cents per pair ; and the latter
at 40 cents, trinuning extra.
The kinds 'of wool used, beginning with the commoner varie-
ties, are wjllow, puplar (LombarJy), beech, birch, ai*pen, ash,
horubeam, w.ilnut.
The wood is cut when it attains a certain size, and is sold on
the spot by auction. The sa'tntiers attend in person and worlc
up their purghascs on the spot, giving the crude form to the
sabots, whicli are afterward se,iJioneJ, and are tlien finished,
carved, and blacked iii Paris or some other mercantile center.
The seasoning of the woo. I t;ikes about twelve months. Gros
sabots are sometimes dried and smoked to expedite the season-
ing, and are finished and sold by country makers and venders
in their own communities.
The timber is cross-cut in lengths for shoes and riven into
blocks. They are rough hewn by a hind-axe, the operator be-
ing called a laiileur^ or cutter. Another workman, the pnmir^
or pirer, now takes them. The cut;ing-to'»l has a bent blade,
, a short handle, and its point h is a honk which engiges a ring
attached to tlie bench. The block is liuld in the left hand and
steadied by certain indentations and prominences on tlie bench
â– while it is being pared, assuming some.vh it the shape of a last.
The third workman is the creiis^itr, or scooper, who works wirli
augers and spoon-shaped cutters, called ciiUeres. The blank
is fixed by wedges between po-sts on the bench, the heel pre-
sented toward the workman, who scoops and gouges out the
JQterior, testing his work by giges.
Aft«r drying, they are carved, painted, and trimmed.
Fi
4507
Pig. 4507.
mtr
compromise ; a shoe with double
wooden sole, hav-
ing a double ik^\-
ible shank D in-
terposed between
tlie toe and heel
parts.
2. (Ord)iancc.)
a. A circular
lilock, usually of ;
wood, hollowed
out and lixed by i
Sabot. tin straps to a I
jirojeetilc, so as j
to maintain its proper jiosition in the bore of a gun, |
to prevent its np-ictting m loading, wobbling in ilis- l
charging, and to decrease windage hy occupying the ',
bore more perfectly than can be done by the projec- I
tile itself. |
b. A nu'tallic cup or disk fixed to the bottom of.
an elou^ati'il projeetile, so as tt> till the bore and take
tln' rilling wli.'ii the gun is disc-liarged. I
Sa-bo-ti-ere'. A French api>aratus for making j
ices. It consists of an outer pail of wood and an
inuev vessel of metal, to contain the cream to be ,
iced. In the intervening space is a mixture of
pounded ice and salt, or of sulphate of soda and
hydrochloric acid. The contents of the inner vessel
are agitated by a handle, and the frozen cream is
occasionally sc-ra])ed down.
Sab're-tasche. A leathern pocket suspended
on the left siile Irom the sword-belt of a cavalry
otticer.
Sac'cha-rom'e-ter. A hydrometer graduated
to indicate the amount of .sugar in worts and othel
saccharine solutions. Bate's is generally used iii
England.
It consists of a brass ball with a cjdindrical stem,
graduated into 30 parts, each corresponding to Tn'no
of the specilic gravity of water, the relative length
of the divisions being such tui to compensate for the
increased volume of the submerged portion as it
sinks in the liquid. Tables are prepared, showing
the percentage of sugar contained in worts of specific
gravities corresponding to the indications of the
scale.
The optical saccharometer is a foi-m of ])olariscope
devised by Jlitscherlieh with special reference to
testing sugars by polarized light. It is provided
with a graduated circle for measuring the angles of
polarization, wliieh serve as a basis of comparison for
the dilfcrent qualities.
The saccharometer usually employed in this country and on
the Continent of Eurojie is B:iunit-'s. It consists of a bulb hav-
ing a smaller bulb beneath, weighted with mercury or shot, and
a graduated stem above. In water it sinks to a cert;iiii mark,
but in sirup it rises in proportion to the density of tlie latter.
It is a hydroiVFter with marks which render it specially applicable
to the use-* of determining percentages of sugar in soluti<)n or
in sirups. The alro/iohnfier, and others of tiiis cbiss dilTer in
their graduations, which render them spei-ially applicable to a
specific chuss of liquids or solutions. A degree on tlie scale of
the Riccharometer marks 0.019 parts of sugar in the .'â– irup.
Thus, if the saccharometer, floating in sirup, marks 10" It , we
have .0J9 X 10 = .19. and know that there is 19 per cent of su-
gar in that sirup If the .«irup is boiling, liowever, it is lighter
than when cold by about 3^. Thin juice is of the same density,
hot or cold. See IlYDaoMtTER.
A .saccharometer commonly employed by
brewers in England for testing worts is of
copper, and has a fiat seem having a pro-
jec tiun a at the upper part to receive a se-
ries of weights marked 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20,
30. At the temperature of 02° Fah., the
instrument sinks in distilled water to the
mark b. A barrel (30 gallons) of pure wa-
tvT at this tempei-aturc weighs 360 pounds.
If the instrument be placed in a liquid
weighing 301 pounds to the barrel, it will
sink only to the mark c. The distance be-
tween tiiese two marks is divided into 10
eriual parts, each equivalent to a difference
of ,„ of a pound in the weight of the liq-
uid. The number of pounds and tenths
which a barrel of wort weighs over 3i)0 is
ascertained by placing weights over the Wort- Saccharometer,
projectinii sufficient to sink the stem to one
of the points b r or one of the intermediate graduations Thus,
if the weights 10, o, 2 be required to sink the instrument to the
mark numbered 3 on the stem, the wiighi uf the wnrt will be
377.3 pounds per barrel, d Ua. ves.^el fur containing the wort
to be operated on.
One mode of detecting the character of a saccharine solution
is by the polari/,'ition of light, observation being made of the
extent to which a given volume of a saccbarino solution twists
a ray of polarized light.
By peculiar operations, the presence, quantity, or relative
proportions of cane and grape sugar may be determined. Both
cane and grape sugar twist the ray to the right, but the former
alone h;ts this power inverted on ebullition with hydrnchloric
acid. This furhishes experimental datji for the quantities of
each pii'sent
Another mode consists in converting the cnne-sugar into
grape-su^ar by fioiling with dilute sulphuric acid for two or
three hours and thi-n heating with solution of potash or soda,
and comparing the depth of color of the resulting dark brown
Fig. 4508.
SACK.
2009