having learnt, according to the first assumption, to build its annual nest or nests in order to
keep its eggs together, is, according to the second assumption, held capable of transmitting this
" habit " to its offspring. There is no proof at present that acquired modifications can be
inherited. There is consequently no proof that a habit can become an instinct.
A second danger is the tendency to balance a pyramid of theory on a pin's point of fact, a
feat not uncommonly attempted, and with disastrous results. The tentative hypothesis has, of
course, its value, but only on condition of its being raised upon a substantial basis.
A few words as to equipment. For those who do not use the camera, this is simple : a
note-book, a binocular, and a square of waterproof material, not too large to go into the pocket,
that will serve to sit upon. Those who use the camera are referred to the article by
Mr. Farren. The camera is a useful adjunct, but its use, however skilful, can never be a
substitute for the conditions of success laid down above. A good photographer is not
necessarily a good observer. Experience, indeed, has shown on more than one occasion that he
may have neither the training nor the capacity for exact observation.
As it is impossible here to deal more than very briefly with the subject of animal
behaviour, the reader is referred to the following works : Professor Lloyd Morgan, Animal
Behaviour, 1900; Habit and Instinct, 1896 (Arnold); Thorndyke, Animal Intelligence, 1911 ;
Washburn, Animal Mind, 1906 (The Macmillan Co., N.Y.). The latter contains a good
bibliography.
II. BIRD-WATCHER'S GUIDE
There are two methods of observation the direct observation of the animal as a free
agent, and experimental observation ; the latter differing from the former in that the animal is
watched under certain prearranged conditions that can be repeated at will by the observer.
STUDY OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR 599
Experimental observation is most easily carried out with domestic or captive animals, and does
not here concern us. For a good account of its methods, with many examples, the reader is
referred to Washburn's Animal Mini/, already quoted.
There are two ways of using the following guide : either to take one section or sub-
section of it and use it as a basis of observation upon a large number of species; or to confine
observation to a few species, and extend the scope of the inquiry to several or all sections. In
either case, it will prove helpful and save waste of time if the foregoing pages of the British
Hi i-il Book are consulted in order to find what is already known on the subject chosen, and in
what special directions new inquiries should be directed. The Index will make this preliminary
labour a matter of no great difficulty.
Under each of the following heads one or more works will be quoted, which will provide
an introduction to the subject.
1. GENERAL CLASSES OF BEHAVIOUR
The general question as to whether any particular form of behaviour is instinctive,
intelligent, or rational is placed here to avoid its repetition under each of the following heads.
The test of an instinctive act is that it is performed for the first time without having to be
learnt. The test of intelligent behaviour is that it is the product of experience, whether this
be direct or imitative. One example will illustrate both instinctive and intelligent behaviour.
A chick, taken from its mother, therefore without opportunity of imitating, will peck for the
first time at any small object within reach. The act of pecking is clearly instinctive. These
first instinctive pecks are not perfect ; the bird's beak may indeed miss the object, but its aim
improves with practice. The improvement is the product of experience, and therefore falls,
according to the definition, under the head of intelligent behaviour. The criterion of rational
behaviour is the capacity to form a mental image, but here the difficulty is to find any
satisfactory way of discovering whether on a given occasion a mental image is formed. In
dealing with this part of the subject, the utmost caution in interpreting the animal's behaviour
is necessary. See works quoted on p. 598 ; and for the physiology of nervous structure see
W. M'Dougall, Physiological Psychology. (Temple Primers. Dent.)
Imitation. In recording all cases of imitation, it is important to note that an act done in
imitation of another may be instinctive or intelligent. For example, a young bird utters for
the first time in its life a note on hearing another young bird of the same species do so. The
first bird may be said to imitate in that it follows the example of the second, but it is not learn-
ing by imitation, for the ability to utter the note is instinctive in the species. The utter-
ance of the second chick simply provides the stimulus that evokes an instinctive response from
the first. But if a bird imitates the note of another species, it has learnt to do something it
could not do before, which is the product of its experience, and is, therefore, intelligent.
Literature : Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour, chap. v. 1 ; Washburn, Animal Mind, p. 237.
See also below, 3, 2, " Song and Notes."
2. GENERAL ORIGINS
It would be useless to attempt in a few words to explain the difficulties involved in any
question of the origin of instinctive and other behaviour. For an adequate statement the
reader is referred to Professor Lloyd Morgan's Animal Behaviour. See also, for general allied
questions, R. H. Lock, Recent Advances in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution,
3rd or later edition (Murray); and J. A. Thomson, Heredity, 2nd or later edition.
000 STUDY OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR
3. PARTICULAR
1. Gestures. All movements intended to give expression to the bird's conscious states.
(a) Expression of sex emotions. Exact descriptions of the gesture (display, attitude, move-
ments). By which sex. How many individuals take part. Are the gestures before and after
mating the same ? Gestures performed by a bird when alone. Is there display of special
features ? (plumes, colours, wattles, etc.). Does the hen select, or is she merely appropriated, or
does she simply mate with the cock in possession of the nesting area, whether it be her former
mate or not ? If the hen selects, what appears to govern her selection; has she chosen the
strongest, etc. ? Does the species under observation pair for life, and, if so, are there sex displays
by one or both of the pair ? Relation of sex gestures to the act of coition. Is a love gesture
made to serve for the expression of emotions other than sexual ? Note differences in the gestures
made by individuals of a species, and those of species in the same group. Literature: C.
Darwin, Descent of Man, 2nd edition, chaps, viii., xiii.-xvi. ; A. R. Wallace, Darwinism,
chap. x. ; Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour, pp. 258-269 ; J. T. Cunningham, Sexual Dimor-
phism in the Animal Kingdom.
(b) Expression of states of mind other than sexual. Exact description of the gestures used
to express anger, fear, and any other state of mind other than love. On what occasion. Note
case of gestures made to serve more than one purpose, and of gestures with apparently different
meanings being used on the same occasion. Can the gesture be explained by any of the three
principles laid down by Darwin in his Expression of the Emotions (Murray) ? See also 6 (c).
(c) Play of birds. Exact description, and occasion when used. By young or adult. Age
of young. Literature : Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour, pp. 248-258 ; Karl Groos, Spiele der
Thiere, 1907, 2nd edition (Fischer, Jena); Play of Animals (translation of first edition, 1900).
2. Song and Notes. These, like gestures, are means of expression, and have been little
studied.
(a) Song. Occasions on which used (sex-excitement, fighting, in winter, e.g. robins). For
question of instinct, note first efforts of young, all possibility of imitation being excluded.
Variation in song of individuals of same species, and same individuals at different times, in
respect to length, notes, quality. Analysis of song : how far made up of call-notes, etc. ; of new
notes ; of imitations. Is imitation of the notes of another species (1) normally an important
factor in the song of the species observed, (2) only occasionally present, (3) absent.
Months when species sings. At night ? Does hen sing ? When ? Literature : Lloyd Morgan,
{obit and Instinct, pp. 178, 229.
(b) Notes. Occasion on which different notes of a species used. Instinctive or acquired ?
Individual variations in pitch, etc. Differences in notes of sexes, of adult and young. Compari-
son of notes of related species, especially of the young. This almost impossible, however,
without a phonetic notation. For notes as means of intercommunication, see Lloyd Morgan,
Animal Behaviour, chap. v. 2.
3. Nest-building. (a) Nest-area. Do the pair confine themselves within a definite area ?
Map of adjacent areas of individuals of same species. Relations of adjacent pairs of same and
different species. How are the boundaries of areas determined. Relation to sexual selection
theory. See 1 (a). Date on which nest-area left.
(6) Site. By which sex chosen. Date on which chosen. Is there final selection from
more than one site ? (Ways of showing choice. Placing nest material, making scrape in ground
going in and out of hole.)
\c) Nest. (Definition : any place for the eggs made by the bird. An unlined scrape is a
nest, an unlined depression on a rock is not.) Note whether ground nest-scrapes are left unlined,
or are lined previous to or after laying ; material used. Whether hole nests are lined or unlined ;
STUDY OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR 601
material. Other nests : material inside and out, and, if any, between the lining and exterior.
For all types of nest : where material obtained. Fresh or dry, if vegetable. Is more than one
nest made by the same pair ? Use of same.
(d) Building. By which sex is the ground scrape made. By which lined. If by both,
share of each. If one, what does mate do? (See vol. iii. pp. 372-379.) Share of sexes in building
hole and other nests. Detailed description of building (scrape, lining ; foundation, shaping,
collecting material). How long to complete. Interval between completion and laying. Causes
of desertion.
(e) Variation. Variation within the species with respect to area, site, lined and unlined
scrapes, shape, material. For example, see vol. i. pp. 374-380. Differences between species in the
same group.
(/) Instinct and intelligence. Note if nests of year-old birds, that have no opportunity of
imitating others, are those of their species. These can best be observed in captivity; but also
in the wild state, if ringed or otherwise recognisable. Note if improvement shown in second
and succeeding nests.
(cj) Cleaning of nest. In what way are the f;eces of young disposed of by the parents ?
Are they eaten or dropped ? At what date after birth do parents cease to remove them ?
Why?
(k) Second nest. Is a new nest built for second or later broods ? If not, is old nest cleaned
or repaired ? Is new nest in same nesting area as first ?
Literature : C. Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct, pp. 232-239 ; W. P. Pycraft, History of
Birds, chap. xi. (Methuen); A. R. Wallace, Natural Selection and Tropical Nature, chapters
on the " Philosophy " and the " Theory of Birds' Nests " (Macmillan). The last named should
be read in connection with the first.
4. Incubation. By which sex, share of each. Date on which each egg laid, incubation
begins, each egg hatched, the eggs being numbered. Effect of weather, latitude, situation of
nest upon date of laying, and period of incubation. Weight of eggs as incubation proceeds. Is
incubating bird fed ? Are eggs covered when left ? Are they turned, how often, in what
manner 1 The information available as to period of incubation and date of laying will be
found for each species in the " Classified Notes " of this book. This might be verified, as well as
completed.
5. Nestlings and Fledglings. Period in nest. Rate of growth tested by weight
and measurements. Immediate cause of departure. Where they go on leaving nest. Rela-
tions with parents when preparations for second brood started. Relations with second or later
broods. See also " Feeding " and " Protection of Young."
6. Feeding. (a) Choice of food is primarily determined by inherited likes and dislikes.
But is the selection of the appropriate food a matter of instinct or experience ? This is tested
by watching young birds, when able to feed themselves, and under conditions that exclude
imitation. For observations on nidifugous young see Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct,
chap, ii., and Animal Behaviour, pp. 93-98. Nidicolous fledglings have not been studied.
(b) Methods of feeding and tending young. Exact descriptions. Instinctive or acquired ?
Tested by watching parent birds when undertaking parental duties for the first time under
conditions that exclude imitation. Share of parents in feeding or tending. Do cock and hen
bring different food to nest 1 Visits with food per hour and day. Time of day when visits most
frequent. Distribution of food among young ; which, if any, get most and why. Death of
weaker nestlings. Cause. Preparation of food for young, whether by digestion, maceration, or
division. Form of food given at different stages of growth. Literature : W. P. Pycraft,
History of Birds, chap. xiv.
(c) Methods by ivhich the young, that are fed by their parents, respond to food stimulus.
602 STUDY OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR
Exact descriptions of the bodily movements both of nidicolous nestlings and fledglings
(e.g. thrush), and nidifugous chicks (e.g. waterhen), about to be fed. Are these movements
used in the adult stage for other purposes ? (e.g. quivering of wings of young about to be fed,
and of adult hen summoning mate for coition). Where on palate, etc., must there be stimulus
by food contact in order to provoke swallowing response ? Age at which young cease begging
for food. How begging checked by parents.
(d) Methods of procuring food and drink. Exact descriptions. How far instinctive,
intelligent. For this observe young when first left to their own devices without chance of
imitation. Examples : Osprey (" Addenda," p. 619 of this vol.), jay and waterhen (Lloyd Morgan,
Habit and Instinct, pp. 56-57, 37-38). Observations under this head provide good material for
the relationship of behaviour and structure, on which see W. P. Pycraft, History of Birds,
chap. xxv.
7. Protection of Young. The following will supply heads for observation : con-
cealment or inaccessibility of nest, aggressive action of parents, protective devices, e.g. feigning
injury. Note individual variations in parents ; also in devotion of male and female respectively.
Causes of mortality in young birds. Literature : W. P. Pycraft, History of Birds, chap. xv.
8. Self-protection (young and adult). The following will supply heads for observa-
tion : (1) active defence with feet, wings, beak; (2) escape by flight, running, diving; (3) hiding
under cover or water; (4) concealing coloration; (5) menacing acts, such as puffing out
plumage, hissing, snapping mandibles, etc. ; (6) warning utterances ; (7) combination for
defence ; (8) do birds post sentinels ? (9) self-protection against extremes of weather, floods.
At what age does fear develop ? For the question of instinct the young must be studied,
possibility of imitation being excluded.
9. Locomotion. Differences in the locomotion of species ; flight, hopping, walking or
running, climbing, swimming. For instinctive locomotion in young birds see Lloyd Morgan's
Habit and Instinct, chap. iii.
10. Social or Solitary Life. (a) Degree of gregariousness (pair, family, flock) at different
times of the year shown by different species.
(6) Solitary life (with respect to other members of the same species) normally occurs
outside the breeding season ; only certain British example is the robin. Map of adjacent areas.
See vol. i. pp. 430-435 (robin), and 305 (dipper).
(c) Mutual aid. To what extent are communities of birds more than mere aggregations
of individuals, that is, to what extent social organisms ? All instances of mutual aid carefully
noted ; also of lack of co-operation. What particular qualities are developed by the social and
solitary life respectively? Literature: Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour, pp. 225-234;
Kropotkin, Mutual Aid (Heinemann), stimulating but exaggerated, and with fanciful state-
ments. Should be read in connection with previously quoted work. Better is Espinas, Les
Societes Animales (Bailliere et Cie).
(d) Origin of the bird community or flock. What causes certain species to unite, others
not ? Distinguish between flocks formed temporarily for feeding or migration : and those that
are permanent (all year) or seasonal, and note all facts bearing on the formation of these, e.g.
flocking of first broods with or without parents, of families, of smaller flocks into large. Lloyd
Morgan, Animal Behaviour, pp. 225-234.
(e) Gregarious roosting. For problems raised see vol. i. pp. 26-28 (crows), 34-38, 44
(rook) ; vol. ii. pp. 114-124 (starling).
(/) Simultaneous flights and concerted movements. Cause of, when no cause for alarm
apparent that can explain the simultaneity. Examples : vol. ii. pp. 115-16 (starling), 314 (sand-
martin) ; vol. iii. pp. 463-5 (dunlin).
(g) Commensalism and parasitism. Commensalism is the social relationship between
STUDY OF BIRD BEHAVIOUR 003
two species making for the advantage of one or both, and to the detriment of neither.
Examples: nnstle-thrush and chaffinch (vol. i. pp. 369-70). Parasitism is to the advantage
of the parasite and detriment of the host. Example : cuckoo (vol. ii. pp. 466-472).
(h) Imitntivn.See above under " 1. General Classes of Behaviour."
(i) Intercom in >< n "-'if ion. See above, " Song and Notes."
11. Migration. (a) General. What is the impulse that prompts the bird to migrate ? Is
the impulse to depart and in a given direction instinctive ? If so, origin of instinct ? How are
birds guided to their destination ?
(b) P'lrtirnl'i,: Date, hour, place. Number of individuals. Direction of flight, height,
speed. Sex of the successive arrivals of the same species. Adult, immature, or birds of
year. Wind or weather. Perils. Behaviour on arrival. Behaviour previous to departure.
Literature : Annual Reports of the British Ornithological Club ; Eagle Clarke, Studies in
Migration, 2 vols. (Gurney and Jackson) ; T. A. Coward, Migration of Birds, 1912 (Cambridge
Manuals of Science) ; Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct, pp. 256-261. Latter two best for
general questions.
12. Geographical Distribution. Added for sake of completeness, though not falling
under the head of behaviour.
(a) Local L int. Exact descriptions of rare birds noted. Dates. Place seen.
(b) Local map showing the distribution of the bird life in a given area all through the
year. Also approximate number of resident species, summer visitors, etc. Ring all young in
area, and adults if. they can be caught. Map the boundaries of nest-areas and feeding-areas of
species having such (see vol. i. p. 432). Flight lines. Roosts. Daily movements.
APPARATUS AND METHODS OF
PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS AND THEIR NESTS
[W. FARREN]
So far as the photographic part of the work is concerned, there is no essential difference
in photographing birds and their nests and other subjects. I propose, therefore, to devote
the greater part of this chapter to hints and methods for overcoming the special difficulties
that are presented by the natural shyness of wild birds, and for giving natural representations
of their nests.
The one purely photographic point I would emphasize is the importance of giving as full
an exposure as possible. In dealing with objects so near to the camera as birds and their nests
must be in order to give a large enough image, the contrast of heavy shadows and bright
patches of light in juxtaposition is accentuated, and nothing but a full exposure can prevent
a spotty, unnatural, and inartistic result. The question of backed, or colour corrected plates,
light filters, etc., can be left to the photographic temperament of the individual.
I. SPECIAL APPARATUS
For photographing birds' nests very little in the way of special apparatus is necessary ; in
fact, good work can be done with any ordinary stand camera, and a cheap single or rectilinear
lens. The most important addition is a device for tilting the camera. This may be in the form
of a ball-and-socket joint on the tripod head, or preferably, for the sake of rigidity, a tilting-
table. It can be obtained from almost any firm of camera manufacturers, or, as the construc-
tion is simple, it can be home-made. The simplest form consists of two boards hinged on the
front edge. The bottom board is secured to the tripod head with a thumb-screw in the same
way that the camera is usually fixed, and another screw passing through the centre of the
upper board secures the camera. Slotted struts of brass or other suitable metal on each side,
pivoted to the edge of the upper board and sliding on milled-headed or thumb-screws on the
lower board, allow of its being fixed at any desired angle.
It is frequently necessary to fix the camera very low when photographing nests on the
ground. The lowest elevation of commercially manufactured tripods is too high for special
requirements ; some telescopic metal stands close down short enough, but these are too flimsy.
Special low tripods for this purpose are made by more than one firm of camera manufacturers.
Those I have seen have the great disadvantage of being non-adjustable as to height. The
carrying of two tripods is, moreover, in my opinion, a very poor way of providing for fixing the
camera at less than a certain height. A very little ingenuity is necessary to devise a tripod for
general use, with a minimum elevation of about two feet. I have one made to my own design,
which is four jointed ; there is no folding, but all the joints slide one in the other, and it can
be fixed at any height from about 18 inches to nearly 6 feet high. (See Figs. 1 and 3, Plate
LXXVIII.) A piece of special apparatus often required when photographing nests is a small
pocket-mirror for reflecting light on to a nest in a dark situation.
604
PLATE LXXVIII
ILLUSTRATIONS OF APPARATUS USED FOB PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS
1. Tent erected at lowest. Tripod the aam
(See pp. 604 and eiO)
Photo by W, Farren
2. Tent covered with branches as actually vised when
photographing a tufted.duck which had It* nest
a few feet off on the left side. (See p. 611)
Photo by W. Farren
3. Tent erected at full height to accommodate the author standing.
Tilting board In action. (See pp. 6O4 and Q\O)
-Ipod the same
BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY G05
For photographing birds, the outfit must be of a more special character to deal successfully
with all cases.
The camera should be strongly built, to ensure absolute rigidity; this is an important
point, as there is sure to be more severe wear than in ordinary photography. As it is frequently
the case that the front of the tent, or some branches, or whatever is used for concealment, will
be fastened to the front of the camera, allowing only the lens to project, which makes it undesir-
able to move the front in order not to disturb the concealing material, it is an advantage to have
a camera the back of which racks out for focusing instead of the front, as on the usual form.
For this reason, and also for its rigidity, the old square field camera is excellent.
A form of field camera, however, now made by most firms, and known as " triple extension,"
is good in that both front and back rack out. With such a camera the focus can be roughly
adjusted by a moderate extension of the front, the concealing material affixed, and further
focusing carried out by racking out the back. This form of camera is additionally useful,
owing to the very long extension possible. This is important, as when photographing a near
object with a lens of the usual focal length a long extension is necessary. But in order
to secure a fair-sized image of a small bird, it is necessary that the lens should be of longer
focus than usual, necessitating a corresponding increase of camera extension. The standard
sized cameras suitable for this work are half-plate 6J x 4|, 5 x 4, and quarter-plate 4{ x 3J, and
the lenses generally fitted are 8", 6" or 7", and 5" or 6" respectively. For bird work these are too
short, and I recommend 10", 8", and 7".
The serious bird photographer will find it convenient to possess a camera of each of these