in fig. 15, and after buds
have started a few inches,
cover with soil, the vine;
^- ^â– ^ each bud will throw out

roots, and if the operation
he parformed in spring, they may be taken up and separated in the
fall.





Fi-. 15

Cuttings. Propagation by cuttintrs is the simplest mode of mul
tinlying a variety. It consists simply in the insertion
of a shoot of one year's growth into the soil ; the
moisture of the soil renews the supply of sap, the buds
swell, the leaves expand, and the descending juices ex-
pend themselves in the production of new roots, which
shoot downwards into the soil, fig. 16. Under ordi-
nary circumstances, or in open ground, this mode is
only applicable to such species i*s readily throw out
rr)ots, as the currant, gooseberry, quince, and grape.
The cutting should be made from eight inches to a
foot long, and have all the lower buds cut out, in order
to prevent its throwing up suckers. Wood of the last
year's growth is used, and the lower end cut square
across at the base of a bud. They should be inserted
perpendicularly, or when long enough, ciuwed, as see,
under the head of grapes ; the earth should be pressed
securely at the bottom, and lightly at the top, and
when possible, a mulch of two inches of tan bark,
saw-dust etc ' ^^^^^'^^^^ "^^'^^ them to preserve moisture.




Runners, are the mode of self- propagation in the strawbc^rry; as
Boon as well rooted they are suited to be removed.



1*ACKING, PRUNING, PROTECTION, ETC. 27

Suckers, are underground runners — often the result of careless
cultivation in breaking off roots. They should always be destroyed,
but never replanted, not even the Frost Gage plum, proving healthy
when so propagated.



CHAPTER III.

TRANSPLANTING TREES HOW, W^HEN ; PACKING, CARE OF WHEN RE-
CEIVED; PRUNING TIME WHEN, HOW, THE TOPS, THE ROOTS; LABELS

FOR ; PROTECTION FROM SHEEP, RABBITS, ETC. ; TRAINING ; FORM OF
TOUNG TREES.

Notwithstanding our people are, as a nation, " planters of trees,"
yet how few, comparatively, ever succeed in carrying the existence
of trees planted, beyond the first season ; or if a second year, only
with a puny sickly habit, anything but satisfactory. The first thing,
in the removal of trees, should be care not to destroy the roots in
digging. Small trees are less liable to injury from such cause than
large ones, but too often have we seen them wrenched out of the
ground, by the strong arm of man, apparently not to injury of roots,
but really they were cracked through every portion, and all the
pores through which the circulation of sap is had, broken and in-
jured, often as much or more to injury of tree, than if one half the
roots had been cut off. Again, have we seen trees cut out wnth
spades, leaving only about four to six inches of main root, and a few
small fibres. Such trees require a whole year's nursing, with severe
shortening-in of limbs, to recover anything like their native vigor,
and are not worth, to the planter, over one-half price of trees well
and carefully dug, with roots nearly entire.

Preparing the Soil. If an orchard is to be planted, and on soil
retentive of moisture, or, in other words — level clayey soil — it
should first be thoroughly subsoil ed, at least twenty-two inches deep ;
it should then have sufiicient number of under drains, that no sur-
plus water would ever remain on it over forty-eight hours. Digging
deep holes should never be practised, but the whole soil should be
made of fine tilth, and if the ground is well drained, or naturally
dry, dig broad spaces, four feet diameter, and one foot deep. If the
ground is not drained and naturally wet — a location and condition
which should never be adopted— let the planting be made by plac-
ing the tree on the level ground, and earthing up around it. Upon
the level prairies this coui:*e has been found most successful, and at
times, without even removing the sod beneath the tree.

Many suppose, that a tree grown in nursery on sandy soil, will-^not



28



TRANSPLANTING TEEES.



succeed on clay and the reverse ; this, if they will only use reason,
and study the nature of obtaining food by the tree, they will see,
at once, has no foundation in fact; but a tree taken from the rich
ground of a w^ell kept nursery, and placed in a barren, half-starved
soil, amid grass and weeds, has no more chance of continuing in
vigor and health, than an animal raised uj.on the rich pastures of our
w^estern country would have, transplanted to some of the bleak, bar-
ren hills of New England. Food for the j^ant is therefore requi-
site, and this should be prepared, in a well and previously cultivated
and enriched soil, and not expected to be supplied in a raw state, by
application of animal manures immediately to the roots; this should
never be done; but, Prof Lindley says, "that a small quantity of
super-phosphate of lime, as it is called, that is to say, a mixture of
oil of, vitriol and burnt bones, mixed with dry mould, and thrown
in round the roots of a newly-transplanted tree, will generally aid
in the fornuition of root fibres, and, consequently, assist very much
in establishing the plant in its new situation ; or, if scattered over
the soil next the roots, the rains will distribute it to the places where
most required."



How to Plant. Having prepared the place and the soil, w^e next

proceed to plant the tree.
Supposing that the roots,




M, sijf.






in removing, have been
carefully preserved, our
tree will present, when
placed in th« hole pre-
pared for it, the appear-
ance represented in our
fig. 17, the upper root
being about four inches
lower than the level of
the surrounding soil. If
the roots are broken,
prune, by a cut from the
under side of each end.
Now^, one man should
scatter carefully in the
fine earth, while another
holds the body of the tree with one hand, and with the other care-
fully presses the earth around and beneath every root, taking care
to keep the small roots and fibres, each in its place, lifting them
as the work progresses, so that their ends are horizontal with their
base. Leave the earth, if the planting be done in Spring, level
around the tree, and wdth the surrounding surface ; if planted in the
Fall, earth up a little mound around the stem-end, and over the



X%/4'/7//^'^ /////^// //'///'^/y-"'



I IT 1



PACKING, PRUNING, PROTECTION, ETC. 29

entire circle of roots, to be drawn away again in the Spring. Avoid
treading or other pressure around the tree, other than that made by
the hand in firmly placing the earth among the roots, in the process.

Time When. With nearly all trees and all locations, Fall is the
best time to transplant ; new granulations have to be made, ere the
roots broken by the process can again supply themselves, or the
plant, with food. This process, if trees are removed in Fall, will
often be. found to have taken place during winter, and ere the ex-
haustion by the leaves by growth in Spring, of their food laid up in
bud and bark the year previous, the roots are again furnishing their
support as nature orders. If, however, trees are removed in Spring,
it often happens, especially with cherries, that the supply of food
pre\iously laid up is exhausted, ere new rootlets are formed. Mul-
ching, and other cares, are often, therefore, more requisite, in order
to keep the roots, and prevent too rapid exhaustion in Spring-planted
trees, than those of Fall planting.

PacMn^'. Amateurs, as w^ell as nurserymen, often have occasion
to forward trees to a distance, and it is desirable they be so packed,
as to ensure success when received. In order to this, they should
be made into a bundle with damp moss liberally mingled among
the roots, the larger trees upon the outside of the bundle, and the
small within ; band securely with twisted straw bands, then take
long straw, la^' it down about two inches thick, with its butts near
the center of the roots of bundle ; lay another layer, with the butts
four inches below the tops of the last, and so on, until you have the
length of bundle. Now, lay down the bundle, and carefully lay straw
over it, in same manner as underneath, only commencing at top,
so that when cords are around it, all will be covered ; proceed with
one end of cord, first lashed to a strong root, to bind it around,
once in about ten inches, all the way to the top. If intended to
go any considerable distance, with risk of rough handling, a stout
stick should be packed in centre of each bundle, extending about
four inches beyond the tops of the trees. Next, lay down a strong
bass mat, or strong cloth, scatter on it straw, then moss, and placing
the roots of bundle upon it, draw it up carefully over, and secure it
by strong pack-thread. If moss is not obtainable, let the roots be
well puddled, as it is termed, that is, dipped in a thick clayey mud,
but avoid packing leaves, grass, etc., among them.

Care of, when received. Trees are often lost by not knowing how
to care "for them when received after long voyages. If dry, or
withered, or frozen, they should be unpacked and immediately bu-
ried, roots and tops, underneath the earth, and there left for some
days ; or, if late in fall, and buried where the water drains off res^^',
let the roots be buried deep, while the tops have only a coup^f
inches upon them. T-ee:i received dry in spring, may be immedi



80



TRANSPLANTING TREES.



ately immersed in a running stream of ^Yater, and after the buds are
swollen, planted out in some location for the season, where the mid-
day sun will not strike them, and where the earth can he always
kept moist by mulching, etc.

Pruning. That certain principles of the nature and habits of a
tree, must ever be borne in mind in pruning, to ensure success, is
evident ; but that the cutting away of small branches, or twigs, if
correctly made, will materially affect the health and longevity of a
tree, whether made in spring, just before midsummer, in fall or win-
ter, we do not believe. In pruning an old tree, long neglected,
where it is requisite to cut away many large branches, attention to the
circulation of sap, the new formation of wood, &e., &c., should, Uy
all means, be the guide. Experience, as well as theory, teaches,
that the most healthy formation of wood commences in July; that
all growth previous is imperfect, and, were it not for that and ensu-
ing months, would rapidly decay ; that while wood is not made as
rapidly at that time, and afterward, as p.-evious, it is of a firmer,
closer, and more healthy character. If. therefore, large limbs are to
be removed, let the time from July to September, inclusive, be se-
lected. A subject so liberally treated upon as this has been, from
the earliest authors down, it would seem sliould be better understood
than appears from the quantity of ill-shapen, malformed trees, to be
seen in almost every orchard. Barry say=5 :

" It is not only necessary to know what and why, but also how
to prune. Theory is only useful as it serves to guide in practice.

The great point to be observed in making incisions on the stems
and branches of trees, is to provide for the speedy and perfect heal-
ing of the wounds or cut surfaces. In removing a portion of a branch
or stem, if we cut between two joints, and thus leave a portion of

wood above the bud
intended to be cut to,
as in fig. 18, this wood
dies, and we have the
trouble of another
pruning to remove it. â– 
If we cut too close to
the bud, and thus re-
move a portion of the
wood with which it is
connected, as in fig.
19, the bud will either
die or disappoint us

Fig. 18, cutting too fMr above the bud. Fig. 19, cuttinof too by producino" a VCrV
close. Fig. 20. the cut as it should be. Fig. 21, re- /« * y i ^ ,^, rpi *'

moval of a branch, the cross line indicating liie proper leeule growtn. ine

place for the cm. proper way is to take

the branch to be operated on in the left hand, place the edge of the




PACKING, PRUNING, PROTECTION, ETC. 31

knife on it, opposite the lower part of the bud to be cut to, and then
make a firm,* quick, smooth draw-cut, sloping upwards, so that the
knife will come out on a level with the point of the bud, as in fig.
20. In soft-wooded, pithy trees, like the grape vine, for example,
half an inch of wood ought to be left above the bud. The
cut should also be made, as much as possible, on the lower
side of the branch, to prevent rain from lodging in the centre. The
position of the bud cut to, is also worthy of consideration in pruning,
to produce or modify certain forms. When we wish the new sliv)ot
of a lateral branch to take as much as possible, an upright direction,
we prune to a bud on the inside ; and if we wish it to sprecd. we
choose one on the outside. In the annual suppression, or cutting back
young trees, to form a stem or side branches, the bwi^ selected to form
the leader is chosen on opposite sides every svccessive year, in order to
maintain the growth in a straight line. If cut (.scry year to a bud
on the same side, it would, in two or three seasons, show an iiicliiia-
tion to that side injurious to the symmetry of the tree.

The Removal of Large Branches, where they are to be entirely
separated from the tree, is often very clumsily performed. In orchards
it is not at all uncommon to see them chopped off with a common
axe ; and even in gardens there seem to be few persons who either
know how, or take the proper care in this matter. They are cither
cut so that a portion of the base of the branch remains, and sends
out vigorous shoots, defeating the objects of the pruning, or they are
cut so close that a portion of the wood of the main branch or stem
is taken with them, and a wound made tljat years are required to
heal up. Both these extremes ought to be avoided.

The surface of the cut made by the removal of a branch, should
in no case be larger than the base of the branch. Where a branch
is united to another, or to the main stem, we notice, both above and
below the point of union, a small projection or shoulder, as at the
cross line in fig. 21. The knife must enter just below that shoulder,
and, by being drawn upwards in a straight line, the base is so com-
pletely removed that no shoots can be produced there ; and yet the
cut surface on the stem is no larger than the base of the branch.
When the saw is used, the surface of the cut should be pared smooth
with the knife, to prevent water lodging on it, and facilitate the
healing of the wound."

Pruning at the time of Transplanting. This is performed, not
only to remove bruised and broken roots and branches, but to re-
store the tree to a proper balance. As trees are ordinarily taken
from the ground, the roots are bruised, broken or mutilated, to a
greater or less extent. This obviously destroys the natural balance
or proportion that existed between the roots and stem, and in such
a condition the tree is unable to grow. The demand upon the roots



32 TRANSPLAXTIXG TREES.

must, therefore, be lessened, by reducing the stem and branches ih
length or number, or both ; and the more the roots have suffered,
the greater must be the reduction of the stem and branches, to bring
them to a corresponding condition.

" Pruning the Roots. This is practised as well to promote fruit-
falness as to lessen the dimensions of trees. The roots are the organs
ihat absorb from the ground the principal food of the tree, and in
jtroportion to their number, size, and activity, other things being
iqual, are the vigor and growth of the stem and branches. Hence,
when a tree is deprived of a certain portion of its roots, its supply of
lood from it?, soil is lessened, growth is checked, the sap moves
slowly in its channels, is better elaborated in the leaves, and the
young branches and buds beo;in to assume a fruitful character.

Roots are also pruned to prevent them from penetrating too deeply
into the earth, and induce the formation of lateral roots near the sur-
face, similar to the cutting back of a stem to produce lateral branches.
The principle is the same.

The work is performed by opening a trench around the tree, just
at the extremities of the roots : the distance from the tree will, there-
fore, depend on its size, and the spreading character of the roots.
The trench should be the width of a common garden spade, and deep
enough to admit of an inspection of all the roots of the tree. If the
lateral roots are to be shortened, this is done first. ^ The knife should
be placed on the lower side of the root, and the part separated with
a clean dra\y cut, such as would be performed on a branch. If the
tree has vertical, or tap roots, they are most easily operated on with
a sharp spade, prepared and kept for the purpose. A smart stroke
with such a spade, in as nearly a horizontal direction as possible, will
separate a pretty strong root. The extent to which root pruning
may be performed, depends on the character of the species, the con-
dition of the tree as regards growth, and the object aimed at. Those
practising it for the first time should go to work with great caution.
It will be better to operate too lightly than too severely. As re-
gards the season, it may be performed either at the end of the first
growth, in July or August, or in the autumn or winter, when vege-
tation is quite suspended. We have operated on cherry trees, with
com.plete success, in August, in a dry time when little growth was
going on. At this season, a copious watering should be given after
the pruning is performed."

Pruning, to form "particular shapes, to promote the formation of
blossom buds, to enlarge the fruit, to cure disease, to increase or
lessen bulk, are all treated of at length by Loudon and others ; but
all seems to us summed up in the following, written by M. Dubreuil,
in France, and first published in this country in Barry's " Fruit
Garden." It is more especially applicable to training of trees in
gardens, than \'' standards in orchards. He savs :



PACKING, PKUNING, PROTECTION, ETC. 33

*' The theory of the pnunhig of fruit trees rests on the following
six general principles :

"1. The vigor of a tree, subjected to prun'mg, depends, hi a great
measure, on the equal distribution of sap in all its branches.

" In fruit trees abandoned to themselves, the sap is equally dis-
tributed in the differ .mt parts without any other aid than nature,
because the tree assumes the form most in harmony with the natural
tendency of the sap.*

" But in those submitted to pruning, it is different ; the forms im-
posed on them, such as espalier, pyramid, vase, &c., change, more or
less, the normal direction of the sap, and prevent it from taking the
form proper to its species. Thus nearly all the forms given to trees
require the development of ramifications, more or less numerous,
and of greater or less dimensions at the base of the stem. And, as
the sap tends by preference towards the summit'of the tree, it hap-
pens that, unless great care be taken, the branches at the base become
feeble, and finally dry up, and the form intended to be obtained, dis-
appears, to be replaced by the natural form, that is, a stem or a
trunk with a branching head. It is then indispensable, if we wish to
preserve the form we impose upon trees, to employ certain means,
by the aid of which the natural direction of the sap can be changed
and directed towards the points where we wish to obtain the most
vigorous growth. To do this, we must arrest vegetation in the parts
to which the sap is carried in too great abundance, and, on the con-
trary, favor the parts that do not receive enough. To accomplish
this, the following means must be successively employed :

" 1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short, and those
of the weak parts long. We know that the sap is attracted by the leaves.
The removal of a large number of wood-buds from the vigorous parts,
deprives these parts of the leaves which these buds would have pro-
duced ; consequently, the sap is attracted there in less quantities, and
the growth thereby diminished. The feeble parts being pruned long,
present a great number of buds, which produce a large surface of leaves,
and these attract the sap, and acquire a vigorous growth. This principle
holds good in all trees, under whatever form they may be conducted.

" 2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part, and remove
the whole or greater part from the feeble. We know already that the
fruit has the property of attracting to it the sap from the rot>ts, and
of employing it entirely to its own growth. The necessary result of
this is, what we are about to point out, viz., that all the sap which
arrives in the strong parts, will be absorbed by the fruit, and the

* This is not iu all cases true. Peach trees, we know, left to themselves, ex-
hibit a very striking example of the unequal distribution of the sap. The ends
of the branches attract nearly the whole, leaving the lateral shoots and lower
parts to die out. In other species, similar instances might be quoted, and, as a
general thing, the proposition is unsound, except in a comparative sense.
2*



J^-



34 TRANSPLANTING TREES.

wood there, in consequence, will make but little growth, while on the
feeble parts, deprived ot fruit, the sap will all be appropriated by the
growing parts, and they will increase in size and strength.

" 3. Bend the strong 2^«r/s and keep the 'weak erect. The more
erect the branches and stem are, the greater will be the flow of sap
to the growing parts : hence, the feeble parts being erect, attract
much more sap than the strong parts inclined, and, consequently,
make a more vigorous* growth, and soon recover their balance. This
remedy is more especially applied to espalier trees.

" 4. Remove fn.vfi the virjorous parts the superjianus shoots ai
early in the season as possible, and from the fetble parts as late as pos-
sible. The fewer the number of young shoots there are on a branch,
the fewer there are of leaves, and, consequently, the less is the sap
attracted there. Hence, in leaving the young shoots on the feeble
parts, their leaves attract the sap there, and induce a vigorous growth.

" 5. Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the vigorous
parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts, excepting ahvays
any shoots which may be too viijorous for their position. By thus
pinching early the strong parts, the flow of sap to such points is checked,*
and naturally turns to the growing parts that have not been pinched ;
this remedy is applicable to trees in all forms.

" 6. Lay in the strong sh:,ots on the trellis early., and leave the fee-
ble j^rts loose as long as possible. Laying in the strong parts ob-
structs the circulation of the sap in them, and, consequently favors
the weak parts that are loose. This is only applicable to espaliers,

" 7. In espalier trees, giving the feeble parts the benefit of the light.,
and confining the strong parts more in the shade, restores a balance,
for light is the agent which enables leaves to perform their functions
and their actions on the roots, and the parts receiving the greater
proportion of it acquire the most vigorous development.

2. " The sap acts with greater force and 'produces more vigorous
growth on a branch or shoot pruned short, than on one pruned long.
This is easily explained. The sap acting on two buds must evidently
produce' a greater development of wood on them, than if it were
divided between fifteen or twenty buds.

" It follows from this, that if we wish to obtain wood branches,
we prune short, for vigorous shoots produce few fruit buds. On the
contrary, if we wish to obtain fruit branches, we prune long, because
the most slender or feeble shoots are the most disposed to fruit.

" Another application of this principle is to prune short for a year
or two, such trees or parts as have become enfeebled by overbear-
ing. (This principle deserves especial attention, as its application is
of great importance.)

3. " The sap tending always to the extremities of the shoots causes
the terminal bud to push with greater vigor than the laterals. Ac-
cording to this principle, when we wish a prolongraent of a stem oi



PACKING, PRUNING, PROTECTION, ETC. S5

branch, we should prune to a vigorous wood-bud, and leave no pro-
duction that can interfere with the action of the sap on it.

4. " The more the sap w obstructed in its circulation, the more
likely it loill be to produce fruit buds. This principle is founded on
a fact to which we have already had occasion to refer, viz. — that the
sap circulating slowly is subjected to a more complete elaboration