supplying the elements of plant -food needed, by
rendering available plant -food which is already in the
soil and preventing its loss. In Kansas, the uplands
(61)
62 BUSH-FRUITS
having a black loam with clay subsoil, are reported
to give the best results. Stony soils may yield just
as good crops, but are even more expensive to work
than when used for crops for which the ground is
plowed every year.
LOCATION
Stronger plants and larger fruit can be obtained
from the strong, moist soils of valleys and bottom-
lands. Such fruit is not equal in flavor, however, to
that of the higher lands, and the plants are more
likely to be injured by the winters or by late spring
frosts. If close to a large body of water, the latter
objection is largely obviated. As is true with all the
other berries, a cool, northern exposure, which will
suffer as little as possible from drought and hot suns,
is to be preferred, though by no means necessary.
A closely bounded basin is always to be avoided, for
in such a situation the extremes of temperature are
likely to be much greater. In the bright days of
summer the sun may pour its rays into such a place
until the atmosphere, owing to lack of circulation,
becomes abnormally hot. At night, on the other
hand, the cold air will settle into such a position,
greatly increasing the danger of untimely frosts, or
of injury from excessive cold. A steep hillside is
always objectionable, both from the difficulty of cul-
tivation and from the loss of fertility and danger to
the plants which may come from excessive washing
of the soil.
HOW TO APPLY PLANT -FOOD 63
FERTILIZERS
Stable - manure is by far the most popular fertilizer
among growers. It is particularly applicable to black-
caps, since they demand heavier feeding than red rasp-
berries or blackberries and are less likely to respond to
an over -sup ply by making too vigorous growth, with
consequent lack of hardiness and diminished fruitful-
ness. In replies to questions sent to growers, asking
what fertilizer had been found most satisfactory, stable-
manure was mentioned forty-four times. Wood- ashes
ranked next, being mentioned twenty -four times. This
strong preponderance of opinion in favor of stable-
manure may indicate that it possesses greater value
than its comparative merits warrant. This is the one
material which nearly every grower is likely to have
used, and when properly applied it is sure to give satis-
faction. It does not follow that its application is always
the most economical and satisfactory thing to do.
One wide-awake grower replied that a Planet Jr.
cultivator proved the best fertilizer with him. This is
simply a modified version of the old adage that "tillage
is manure," the full truth of which most of us have not
yet come to appreciate. Such plants as raspberries do
not make heavy drafts upon the soil. If therefore the
physical conditions of the soil can be kept right and the
chemical activities can be augmented, enough plant -food
can be, unlocked from most soils to supply their needs.
Tillage does both of these and also assists to conserve
moisture, without which no plant -food can be available,
since it can only be used by the plant when in solution.
64 B USH - FR U ITS
The quality of ordinary stable -manure is very uncer-
tain, owing to differences in methods of feeding and in
treatment which the manure receives after it is made.
It commonly contains an excess of nitrogen. This,
though by far the most expensive element of plant
fertility, and one easily lost by leaching and evaporation,
is required in only limited quantities in the production
of fruit. The chances are, therefore, that in the use
of large quantities of stable -manure this expensive
element is wasted. An excess of organic nitrogen may
also help to deplete the soil of potash. When changed
to nitric acid it combines with potash and other bases
which leach away if not taken up by plants, thus deplet-
ing the soil of basic ingredients. The use of less
manure, supplemented with chemicals containing phos-
phoric acid and potash, is often wiser.
According to the analysis of raspberries published
from Washington* a crop of one hundred bushels of
raspberries would remove only about six pounds of ni-
trogen, twenty pounds of phosphoric acid and fourteen
pounds of potash from the soil. This being true, the
importance of fertilizers may be easily overestimated.
Fifty pounds of nitrate of soda or slightly more of dried
blood, one hundred and fifty pounds of acid phosphate
and fifty pounds of muriate of potash would more than
supply this need. The unavoidable losses in the soil
make it necessary to furnish more than the plants take
away; yet this may serve as a suggestion regarding
the possible demands. The individual qualities of the
'Year-Book, Dept. of Agr., 1895: 568.
GROWING THE PLANTS 65
soil may modify the validity of calculations of this
sort, since soils differ so much.
One factor in soil -fertility is not supplied by chemi-
cals. That factor is humus, a more important one
than the others. In this stable -manure has the advan-
tage, but the same results may be obtained by the
judicious use of green -crops before planting and of
cover -crops afterward.
PROPAGATION
There is practically but one way of propagating
black -caps, and that is by means of tips. Plants can
be grown from root cuttings or by burying the entire
cane and cutting it in pieces after roots are thrown
out, but these methods are so seldom used that there
is little need of taking them into consideration. These
tips take root naturally, unaided, in sod ground, for
they thread their way amongst the grass roots, and
are thus held in place until established. In culti-
vated ground they are blown about by the wind, and
do not have an opportunity of becoming fastened in
the soil. It is necessary, therefore, to put the tips
down and cover them, in order to secure any consider-
able number of plants. This may be done with a hoe,
spade or any other convenient tool. It is better to
point the tip well downward, so that the end is the
deepest part when covered. This will produce a plant
of much better shape than if the tip is put in nearly
horizontal and covered or a considerable length.
A tool hung somewhat like an adze, but with a
E
66 BUSH-FRUITS
narrower blade, about as heavy as a good -sized ham-
mer, and which can be readily swung in one hand,
will prove convenient. Such a device is largely used
in planting strawberries by L. J. Farmer, of Pulaski,
N. Y., who was the first, so far as I know, to suggest
it. Perhaps an equally serviceable implement might
be made on the plan of a spade, using a shovel or
spade handle, which could be conveniently grasped
in the hand, combined with a strong, heavy blade
about two inches wide and six or eight inches long.
This could be easily thrust into the soil with one hand,
moved to one side, while the tip is inserted, then re-
moved, and thrust in again at the side to firm the soil
against the tip. A narrow transplanting trowel, like
those used by nurserymen in setting root grafts, would
answer equally well, except for the shortness of the
handle, and consequent stooping required. A cross-
bar on which to put the foot, if necessary in hard
ground, is an advantage. Either of the tools mentioned
can be readily made with the aid of a blacksmith.
The tips should not be covered until they begin to
thicken and assume a leafless "snake-like" appearance,
which will generally be from the middle of August on.
It is always desirable to propagate plants from
young plantations, if possible. They not only root more
readily and freely when young, but more healthy and
vigorous plants are produced, with less likelihood of
the transmission of disease. There are those who argue
that since black -caps have always been propagated
largely from bearing plantations without deterioration,
there is no ground for believing that better plants
SETTING THE PLANTS 67
are produced from young plantations. This is hardly
sufficient evidence for the statement, for there is no
doubt that varieties do deteriorate in cultivation, and
since this mode of propagation is nothing more than a
sub -division of the same individual, the young plant
cannot fail to carry with it to a large degree the
character of the old one. Propagating from old plan-
tations is especially objectionable if the plants are
affected with anthracnose, or any other fungous dis-
ease, as so many old plantations are likely to be.
PLANTING
Spring planting is always to be preferred for
black -caps; yet, if for any reason it is desirable to
secure the plants in the fall, a very good method is
to plant them in shallow furrows and mulch well
through the winter, leaving them in this position un-
til the young shoots have made a growth of several
inches in spring; then set in their permanent place.
This insures the weeding out of any poor plants and
secures a perfect stand in the field. Plant deep ;
careful growers who have given attention to this
point have satisfied themselves that 3 to 4 inches is
none too deep to give best results. The plants should
be set in the bottom of the furrow and covered lightly
at first, gradually filling up the furrow as growth pro-
gresses. Plants thus set appear to stand drought
better, and there is less trouble with the canes blow-
ing down than when planted shallow. In the begin-
ning they may make a less even and vigorous start
68 BUSH-FRUITS
than those planted shallower, for the bottom of a
deep furrow in early spring is of necessity a less
favorable position for the growth of a young and
tender plant than one nearer the level of the surface.
Deep planting will not prove satisfactory where the
subsoil is high and hard.
One point in connection with planting which
should not be neglected is pruning back the plants
closely when set. Experienced growers rarely neglect
this, but in home gardens, at least, plants are often
seen where long canes are left, apparently with the
idea of getting fruit at once. Any fruit obtained the
first year, however, is at the expense of the growth
and vitality of the plant, and will be charged up
against ensuing crops at much more than compound
interest. Plants which are not cut back nearly to the
crown when set do not readily throw up canes from
the root, but branch out from the old stalk. Especial
care should be taken to cut away the whole of the
old canes if they show any spots of anthracnose. There
is every advantage in keeping rid of such diseases and
enemies just as far as possible, rather than allowing
them to first become destructive and then attempting
to fight them. If a large proportion of these tips
have the anthracnose spots when planted, the disease
is transferred and reset with as much certainty and
under as favorable conditions for growth as are the
plants themselves, unless removed and destroyed.
Simply to cut off the tips and leave them lying on
the ground where the new planting is done, is to
miss entirely the end sought. These fungi are plants
DISTANCE OF PLANTING 69
just as truly as are the ones upon which they live,
and their seeds (spores) are just as certain to germi-
nate and grow if given the proper conditions.
If black -cap raspberries are to be planted in rows,
three feet in the row, with rows six feet apart, will
be found satisfactory distances. Some prefer rows
seven feet apart, and for very strong -growing varie-
ties this is no doubt better. If in hills, they should
be not less than five feet apart each way, which may
do for weak and slender -growing varieties, but as a
rule six feet is much better. Black -caps are more
easily kept in good condition in rows than red rasp-
berries and blackberries, but there is the intermediate
space between the plants to be kept clean by hand,
so that it is unquestionably more expensive to care
for an acre thus planted than when in hills far
enough apart to admit of horse cultivation both ways.
Larger and finer fruit can also be obtained from
hills farther apart, with thorough cultivation on all
sides. The only question is the yield, and those who
have tried it most thoroughly are most confident that
the yield is fully as good in hills as in rows.
TILLAGE
The importance of frequent, thorough cultivation
has been so strongly urged in connection with each of
the other fruits that a repetition is uncalled for here,
although just as applicable to this as to all the others.
Since there are no suckers to be cut out in black -caps,
it matters less what the style of the cultivator is, if it
70 BUSH-FRUITS
only loosens the ground thoroughly and leaves it fine
and mellow. Some growers use a plow at the first cul-
tivation, and perhaps once later in the season. On the
whole, this is not to be recommended. It not only
disturbs and injures the roots, but it leaves the ground
in undesirable shape. If the furrows are turned from
the rows with a ridge in the center, the two furrows
next the bushes leave the roots more or less exposed,
which is undesirable. If the furrows are turned to-
ward the rows this leaves a ridge, with more or less of
a harbor for insects about the plants where the furrows
are thrown together. If cultivation is begun promptly
in spring, before the ground gets hardened, there is no
necessity for plowing, for the soil will work up readily
with any good cultivator. This keeps the ground in
much better shape, both for work among the bushes,
and for the satisfactory growth of the bushes them-
selves.
PRUNING
Young black raspberry canes should be cut -back to
cause them to branch and become as nearly self-sup-
porting as possible. One point, already mentioned,
should be again emphasized, and that is that the young
shoots should be nipped back low, when they reach the
desired height, not allowing them to get considerably
higher and then cutting back to the height required.
If pinched low, the plant will at once throw out strong
and vigorous branches near the ground, making a well-
balanced, self-supporting bush. On the other hand, if
it is allowed to grow higher and is then cut back, only
SUMMER PRUNING 71
weak buds are left, and the result is that they do not
develop so rapidly ; only three or four of the upper
ones start at all, producing a topheavy and unsatis-
factory plant. Sheep shears are very convenient for
this summer pruning, or it may be quickly done by
merely pinching out the tip with the thumb and finger.
In a young plantation, where the old canes do not in-
terfere, a large knife, sharpened on both edges, is prob-
ably more convenient than either. With older bushes,
the cutting should be done at a point lower than the
top of the old bushes, so that a knife is not likely to
work so well. With a knife in one hand and shears in
the other, the workman can meet any condition quickly.
Theoretically, a smooth, slanting cut would appear to
be better than breaking them off with the thumb and
finger, leaving an irregular, ragged end. An experi-
ment to test this, however, proved that it makes no
difference, for the canes nearly always die back to the
first bud in either case.
One clipping is sufficient, although it is necessary to
go over the plantation two or three times, for the
shoots do not all reach the desired height at once.
Eighteen to twenty -four inches is about the height at
which to clip the canes, if done when they reach that
height. If allowed to grow too high before clipping,
they should not be cut back quite so close. Clipping
the laterals after they have grown twelve or fifteen
inches, to make them branch again, has been sometimes
recommended, but there is little, if any, advantage in
it, while it makes an added expense in summer, and
also in the spring pruning. It also results in produc-
72 BUSH-FRUITS
ing a mass of small and poorly -developed laterals,
many of which are winter -killed. It is much better
after pinching the main cane to let them alone until the
following spring, when they should be cut back to
twelve to eighteen inches in length.
Now and then a grower is heard from who depre-
cates all pruning as contrary to nature, and, therefore,
argues that plants should be allowed to grow entirely at
their own sweet will. One recent writer in this line
brings forth, in proof of his argument, the statement
that he never takes less than ten crops of fruit from
a plantation, and even then the canes are stronger than
those of many five -year -old plantations he has seen.
This is, no doubt, perfectly true, for a little later he
states that he would be satisfied with a yield much
below that given as the average estimate of a large
number of growers. A machine which does only half
work ought to last longer, and so with a raspberry
plant. But why continue to care for a plantation
year after year by a system of culture which returns
a yield much below that easily obtained, simply be-
cause the plants last longer thereby? Why not rather
force the plants to do their best, and when they fail
let them go, thereby securing better fruits, better
yields, and consequently better profits!
Not more than five young canes to the hill should
be left to develop, and three is probably even better.
Indeed, were it not for the liability of accidents to a
single cane, it is quite possible that we might just as
well get all our fruit from one, if given the whole
strength of the root throughout the season. Samuel
REMOVING THE CANES 73
Miller, of Missouri, reports repeatedly getting two
quarts in a season from single canes.
When the fruit has been gathered, cut out all old
canes, gather and burn them, to destroy all insects
and fungi harboring thereon. The work is easier done
at that time than at any other, and it gives a good
opportunity for thoroughly cultivating and cleaning
out the plantation. The argument that the old canes
serve to protect the younger ones during the winter,
and, therefore, should be left till spring, has little
weight. Whatever protection there may be is un-
doubtedly fully offset by the injuries due to whip-
ping together and consequent wounding in windy
weather.
When it has been decided to discontinue a planta-
tion, it will be found an advantage to the bearing
canes to go through the field and pull or break away
all the young shoots about blossoming time. This
has a slight tendency to hasten the ripening, and may
enable the plants to carry the fruit through in better
shape and increase the yield considerably, especially in
a dry season, when every drop of water that can pos-
sibly be obtained from the soil is needed by the fruit
itself.
There is always a temptation to leave too much
wood and allow the plants to overbear the first year
after setting. They are but partially developed at
that time, and should only be allowed to produce a
partial crop. The canes are usually long and strag-
gling, and need to be -severely cut back. If left long
they may produce a comparatively heavy crop, but it
74 BUSH-FRUITS
will always be at the expense of vigor and future
productiveness. In fact, a plantation may be practi-
cally ruined by this first injudicious treatment.
HARVESTING
Gathering the fruit is one of the most troublesome
details connected with berry -growing of all kinds, and
the man who does not live close to a town where plenty
of pickers can be readily had is practically debarred
from entering any line of it where hand-picking must
be employed. Formerly it was the same, whether
growing the fruit to be sold fresh in the market, or
for drying. But the advent of the harvester has made
it possible to grow and evaporate raspberries without
the annoyance of assuming command of a small army
of pickers. This opens the way to any farmer, for
taking up this industry, no matter how remote his
farm may be from towns or railways, and it is in
this fact alone that the chief value of the method lies,
for many growers who are so situated that they can
easily get pickers in abundance still prefer to have the
fruit picked by hand.
This harvester is a simple affair (Fig. 13, page 54),
consisting of a canvas tray some three feet square, there
being only enough wood about it to form a frame -work
and enable it to be moved about. Under the corner
which rests on the ground, there is a sort of shoe of
wood, enabling it to be slid along from bush to bush
easily. In one hand the operator carries a large wire
hook, Avith which the bushes are drawn over the canvas,
THE BERRY-HARVESTER 75
or lifted up if too low down and in the way. In the
other hand is a bat, resembling a lawn -tennis racket,
with which he knocks off the ripe berries. This bat
is merely a canvas -covered loop of heavy wire fastened
in a convenient handle. In place of this, some use
a wooden paddle, at the risk of bruising the fruit
unnecessarily. In gathering by this method, the ber-
ries are allowed to become very ripe, and the plan-
tation is gone over but two or three times in a season.
Many dry leaves, some stems and a few green berries
are knocked off with the fruit, but the leaves are no
disadvantage, for they help to absorb moisture before
and after drying, and may aid in preventing mold if
the fruit has to stand for some time before going to
the evaporator. The leaves are quickly taken out by
running the fruit through a fanning mill after it is
dried. Some growers fan them out before drying, but
this has the disadvantage of bruising and crushing
more berries. The berries are usually allowed to stand
in the field in boxes for a time after gathering, and
any insects which may have fallen in are likely to
crawl out and disappear.
Growers who have had much experience say that a
man will average eight to ten bushels a day with the
harvester, although much more can be gathered in the
best picking. On one farm visited, two men and two
girls had gathered thirty -one bushels the day previous
in ordinary picking, and one of the men had been in
the field but part of the time. This shows the first
cost of gathering to be' less than half a cent per quart.
Running them through the fanning mill costs but a
76 B USH-FR UITS
trifle ; then before marketing they are picked over by
hand to remove stems, green berries and other litter.
This does not cost over one cent a pound and is some-
times paid for by the pound at that rate, so that the
whole cost may be placed at one cent a quart, as
against two cents usually paid for hand-picking.
There are those, however, who think that in the end
there is not much difference in the expense, whether
gathered with the harvester or picked by hand.
Growers who have had experience with both methods
express the opinion that harvesting yields a better
quality of dried fruit than hand-picking, for the rea-
son that, if picked by hand, they cannot afford to look
them over again after drying, and so they do not go
to market in as clean and nice condition as those which
come from the harvester.
Some extensive and general fruit-growers find it
inconvenient to attend to the matter of looking over
the dried product at the same time that other fruits,
which follow on after the raspberries, are claiming their
attention, and for that reason prefer to pick a large
part of the crop by hand and market it fresh, if they
can get pickers conveniently. In that case, they find
the harvester a great convenience to finish up the last
of the crop. Every grower knows how much dissatis-
faction occurs in keeping the pickers at their work
after the berries begin to get thin. With the har-
vester, the late berries can all be gathered at one time
with a great deal of satisfaction to all concerned.
This plan is also available for those who sell their
fruit fresh. The last of the crop can be gathered
DRYING THE FRUIT OUTSIDE 77
and dried, thus proving a relief to the market and to
the patience of the grower and pickers. This method
of harvesting was invented and introduced by Jewett
Benedict, of Dundee, N. Y., and is extensively used
by the berry growers of that region.
METHODS OF DRYING
Drying Out of Doors. Various methods of drying
are employed, the simplest of which is to dry on boards
in the sun. This usually takes from three to five days,
and the picture shows the way in which it is ordinarily
done. Platforms or trays about twelve feet long and
Fig. 14. Drying berries out of doors.
three to four feet wide are made of matched boards. A
narrow strip is nailed around the edge of each tray to
prevent the berries from rolling off. The trays rest
upon long horses made of scantling, to hold them at a