ARE Exposed.
There are two sources of danger : first, the lazvlessness of numerous
highwaymen who infest the country, and of the fanatical Moslem
163
164 The Crisis in Turkey.
population of the cities ; and second, the hostility of Turkish
officials, who have repeatedly failed to restrain, and in some cases
have even encouraged attacks upon the lives and property of American
citizens.
3. Evidence of this Dangerous Condition.
So far back as June 29th, i88r, Secretary Blaine, in official instruc-
tions to Minister Wallace at Constantinople, wrote :
" Your attention will doubtless be prominently and painfully
drawn to the insecurity of the lives and property of foreign travelers
in Turkey, and the failures of the authorities to prevent or repress
outrages upon American citizens by wayside robbers and murderers,
or even to execute its own laws in the rare instances of the perpetra-
tors of such outrages being brought to justice. I cannot take a better
text on which to base this instruction, than the accompanying copy
of a letter addressed to the President by a number of American resi-
dents in Turkey. Its statements are known to be entirely within the
truth, and can be verified abundantly from the files of your legation.
They show in simple yet forcible language, the insecurity of traveling
in that country, and the instances to the nutnber of eight, within the
past two years, ivhcn American citizens have been robbed and
beaten by lawless marauders. On these occasions the lives of the
assailed have been at the mercy of the robbers and, in one instance
at least, the taking of life preceded the robbery." — Foreign Rela-
tions of the United States iS8r.
The above extract refers to outrages in Western Asia Minor and
the vicinity of Constantinople, but it is well known that in the
Eastern and interior part of Turkey, where many of us live, the in-
security is greater and has steadily iticreased, during the thirteen
years that have elapsed since the above facts 7vere admitted by the State
Department.
The murderous attack by a Kurdish chief in person, which nearly
cost Dr. G. C. Raynolds, of Van his life, and for which no indemnity
zaas ever obtained, though the assailant was positively identified in
court, is reported in full in Foreign Relations of the United States,
1883, 1884, and 1890.
The arrest and indignities inflicted upon Mr. Richardson of Erz-
erum, by the Governor-General, for which no apology even was ever
secured, are related in Foreign Relations of the United States 1891.
The burning of Marsovan College by an unrestrained Turkish mob
Appendix. 165
and the danger lo the lives of many American residents is found in
Foreigfi Relations of the United States 1893.
More cases of injury and insult, may be found in the same official
records. But in many other instances it has been felt to be useless
and inexpedient to even report them. The absence of any American
representative to stibstantiatc and vindicate our rights on the ground,
and the hopelessness of securing anything but further injtiry by trying
to press our claims, often drives us to the humiliating necessity of
suffering injustice with scarcely a protest.
THE REQUEST.
We feel that the condition shown by the above e\idence, not to
add more, abundantly justifies a renewed request for some Consular
protection in the Eastern part of Turkey, for the American citizens
permanently residing there in the prosecutioti of lawful pursuits.
Our present exposed and helpless condition is clearly set forth in a
communication from the United States Legation at Constantinople,
to the State Department : "It may not be doubted that the absence
of an American Consul at Erzroom leaves our citizens there singularly
destitute of means to vindicate their rights and protect their interests ;
this is tlie more regrettable as Erzroom is a missionary station of con-
siderable importance, and situated in a province where official pro-
tection is most frequently and urgently needed. The British Consul
there is instructed to act ' unofficially ' for our citizens, but his right
to represent them is not recognized by the Ottoman authorities ; the
obvious consequence is, that when his good offices are most needed, they
are of least avail." Foreign Relations of United States 1891.
We are thus seen to be cut off from Consular protection of any
kind. The nearest U. S. Consul, Mr. Jewett of Sivas, an excellent
man, is unavailable for us for three reasons : first, the delay and
difficulty in communicating with him on account of our isolation, and
the very circuitous post-routes, in case the local authorities were kind
enough not to intercept our letters, as they have repeatedly, even the
official correspondence of the United States Minister {Foreign Re-
lations of the U. S. 1893); second, the distance and methods of
travel are such that probably from one to two months would elapse
after any outrage, before the Sivas Consul could be notified and
arrive ; third, the Consul at Sivas could not leave his post without
neglecting the large American interests in Asia Minor.
1 66 The Crisis in Titrkey.
Aside from being needed when special difficulties do occur, it is
obvious that the mere presence of a United States Consul on the
ground would have a marked effect in deterring both the lawless and
fanatical elements, and the officials, who have never seen the stars and
stripes, from repeating acts which have caused much injury to the
interests of American citizens, and have been the occasion of tedious
and unpleasant diplomatic correspondence between the two countries.
The expense of living in Turkey is unusually low.
In view of all the foregoing facts, it is urgently requested that
American Consuls be located at Erzerum and Harpoot. These cities
are large centres of population and of American interests, and the
seat of Provincial Governors. They have large commercial and
strategic importance, and as good facilities for communication by
post, telegraph, or private messenger as the country affords. From
Erzerum, Bitlis and Van could also be cared for, while Mardin and
Mosul would naturally be under Harpoot, and thus the Americans of
that whole territory would be brought within two or three week's
journey of Consular protection.
We are from seven hundred to one thousand miles from Constan-
tinople, which means a journey of three to six weeks. The fact that
at least £,ooo men, women and children in our midst have been mas-
sacred, and this fact kept nearly three months from the civilized world,
is a. significant hint as to our isolation attd danger. The articles in
the last Harper s Weekly, Dec. 29, and in the Review of Reviews,
Jan. 1895, give much light on the situation.
APPENDIX C.
DR. HAMLIN's explanation,
(New York Herald, December 20, iSg4.)
To Ike Editor of the Herald :
\ cutting from the Heraldha'i been sent to me to-day containing a
letter of Ilis Excellency, Mavroyeni, on the Armenian atrocities. I
must strongly object to the use he makes of a letter of mine in the
Boston Congregationnlist of last year (December 23, 1893).
The object of that letter was to show the absurdity of the revolu-
tionary plotters. The Armenians are a noble race, but few in num-
ber, scattered and unarmed. The Turkish Government has never
had the least fear of any such movement. It knows well that there is
no place in the Empire where one thousand or even one hundred Ar-
menians could assemble with hostile intent. And besides they have
no arms, and they are not accustomed to their use. They would be
lambs in the midst of wolves. Every one knows this who knows any-
thing of Turkey outside of Constantinople.
It is to be greatly regretted that the Ottoman Ambassador should
attempt to cover up the path of these horrid atrocities which have
agitated the whole Christian world and for which Turkey must give
account. It were far better to deplore the fact and work for justice
and judgment. It may be the time has passed when such deeds of
blood and torture, committed upon unarmed men, women and chil-
dren, can be condoned by the civilized world.
■ The plots of the revolutionists were harmless as to any effective
force, but were very pernicious in arousing fanaticism. The fact
that a few hair-brained young men in foreign lands had plotted a revo-
lution was a sufficient reason in the view of Moslem fanaticism for
devoting the whole race to destruction. It was this which I feared
and it is this which has happened.
167
1 68 The Crisis in Turkey.
Another object of the letter, from which His Excellency has quoted,
•was to draw attention to the fact that this revolutionary movement is
a game which Russia is playing in her own interests. And she has
played it well. She has again caught Turkey in her trap. The
whole civilized world will now approve of her marching in with force
to stop the slaughter of an industrious, peaceful, unarmed peasantry.
If Russia enters, it will be with professions of great kindness toward
the Sultan. It will be to aid him in his well known benevolent in-
tentions in the government of his Christian subjects ! But she will
call the Armenians to her standard and will arm and train them and
they will prove a brave and valiant soldiery. Some of the ablest
generals of the Russian army have been Armenians. Thus armed
and trained, with the aid of their Russian allies, they will defend
their own homes in the Sassoun or any other district.
Turkey has brought this upon herself. His Excellency is a Greek
gentleman, and has a natural sympathy with Russia. His influence
has been t-o magnify the revolutionary plots instead of showing, as
my letter did, their insignificance and their Russian character, and
has led his government to give to them an importance which seems
absurd. The Turkish Government has had sufficient opportunity to
study and understand Russia since the Treaty of 1829, and again of
1833. Have her trusted advisers been true to her, or have they
betrayed her interests ?
The civilized and Christian world awaits with profound and fixed
attention the solution of the question whether bloody, fanatical vio-
lence or law shall reign over the Eastern regions of the Turkish
Empire.
Cyrus Hamlin.
Lexington, Mass., December i8, 1894.
APPENDIX D.
THE CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS.
With what intelligence and religious toleration the censorship of
the press is conducted may be judged from examples found in an
official document :
" The quotation, in religious books, of the words of Scripture for
proof or illustration, has been subjected to the will of the censor ; and
even the printing of religious books has been objected to on the
ground that since Christians are graciously allowed to use the Holy
Bible, they need no other books of religion. Appeal from the deci-
sions of the censors is practically unavailing. This censor insists
that the Scriptural phrase ' Kingdom of Christ ' may not be used by
Christians.
" The index list of the Eil^le lessons for 1893 is simply a table of
contents prepared by the British Sunday School Union. The cen-
sors have refused to permit the publication of this index list, unless
some fifty titles are erased, or modified into a form at variance with
the matter of the lessons, or expanded to a degree impossible in a brief
table of contents, for example : St. Luke iv,, 14-21, ' Gospel liberty.'
The word 'liberty' must be erased. Jeremiah xxxiii., 7-16, 'Sor-
row turned to joy,' This title must be suppressed. Ilaggai ii., 1-9,
'Encouraging the people.' This title, which refers to the Divine
encouragement given to the people in the work of rebuilding the
temple in the days of Zerubbabel, must be erased.
" Psalm xxxiii., 10-22, ' Wicked devices frustrated.' This title must
be stricken out.
" Esther iv., 1-9, ' Sorrow in the palace.' This title must be
suppressed.
" Romans iv., 1-8, ' Saved by grace.' This title must be modified
to read ' Saved from sin by grace.'
169
170 The Crisis in Tui'key,
"Psalm xxxviii., 8-15, ' Hope in distress.' This title must be
suppressed.
" Joshua i., i-Q, ' Fear not.* This title can not be allowed,
" Romans viii., 31-39, ' Rejoicing in persecution.' This title must
be erased.
" Romans xv. , 25-33, ' ^ benevolent object.' This title cannot be
allowed to stand unless the object is stated." — Foreign Relations of
the United States, 1893.
We learn that four months after the complaint was made the par-
ticular points specified above were arranged. But as soon as foreign
pressure was relaxed the activity of the Censor revived, and is now
more intolerable than ever. A gentleman of long experience and
intimate knowledge writing from behind the scenes within a month,
states : " The Censorship of the Press is so severe as to amount
almost to a prohibition. At Constantinople a most reckless and
destructive mutilation of books goes on ; and, contrary to the ex-
pressed utterances of the Porte guaranteeing religious liberty, Chris-
tian doctrines are expunged or changed, so as, at times, to become
ridiculous and false. The men appointed as Censors of the Press
seem to be utterly ignorant of all Christian literature and history and
their object is to make all books conform to tlie doctrines of Islam.
" The religious weekly of the American Mission in Syria, which
had been published for thirty years, was suppressed for a whole year,
no reason being given ; and when the permit was finally secured, it
was accompanied by puerile and humiliating conditions."
Some special dej>artments of literature, such as history and poetry,
are forbidden, wholesale, by the Censor. Many of the Censor's deci-
sions and the grounds on wh'ch they are based would be most laugh-
able, but for the fact that they are part of an attempt to throttle and
starve the hungry and growing minds of millions.
APPENDIX E.
PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE SUBJECT.
HISTORICAL.
Norman, Armenia and the Campaign 0/1877. London, 187S.
MiLNER, The Turkish Empire. London : Religious Tract So-
ciety.
Clark, The Arabs and the Turks. New York : Dodd & Mead.
TOZER, The Church and the Eastern Empire. New York : Ran-
dolph. London : Longmans.
Latimer, Russia and Turkey in the XIX. Century. Chicago:
McClurg& Co., 1894.
MORFILL, Russia. New York : Putnams. London : T. Fisher
Unwin, 1893.
Lane Poole, Turkey. New York : Putnams. London : T.
Fisher Unwin, 1893.
CUVRCHILL, E>ruzes and J/aronites. London: Quaritch, 1S62.
Viscount Stratford DE Redcliffe, The Eastern Question.
London: John Murray, 18S1.
Latham, Russian and Turk. London : Allen, 1S78.
Layaru, Nineveh and its Remains. London : Murray.
Rawlinson, The Eire Great Monarchies. Murray.
Rawlinson, The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Longmans.
Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. Longmans.
travel.
Smith and Dwight, Researches in Armenia. 2 vols. P.oston :
Crocker & Brewster, 1833.
Stephens, Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland. 2 vols. New
York : Harpers, 1839,
171
1 7 2 TJie Crisis in Turkey.
SoUTHGATE, A Totir through Armenia, Persia, and Mesopotamia.
2 vols. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1840.
Van Lennep, Travels in Asia Minor. 2 vols. New York : Van
Lennep, 1870.
Van Lennep, Bible Lands : Their Modern Ctistoms and Manners.
New York : Harpers, 1875.
TheilmaNN, yourney in the Caucasus, Persia, and Turkey.
2 vols. London: 1875.
Creagh, Armenians, Koords, and Turks. London : 1880.
TozER, Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia 3/inor. London:
1881.
Bishop, yourneys in Persia and Kurdistan. 2 vols. New York :
Putnams. London: John Murray, 1891.
MOHAMMEDANISM.
Sale's, The Koran. 2 vols. Philadelphia : Wardle, 1833.
Smith, R. Bosworth, Mohai?uned atid Mohatumedajiism. London:
John Murray. New York : Harpers, 1875.
Washburn, The Points of Contact and Contrast betiveen Christi-
anity and Mohammedanism. Chicago : The Parliament Publishing
Company, 1893.
Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca. New York :
Putnams. Belfast : Mullan.
MuiR, Life of Mahomet. London.
Si'ViiLKG-EK, Life of Mohammed. Allahabad, 1851.
Irving, Life of Mahomet. Putnams.
Stobart, Lslam atid its Founder. Christian Knowledge Soc.
Pfander, Mezan el LLoc. London : Church Missionary Society.
W.\iG]iY.%, Notes on Muhammadanism. London: Allen, 1S77.
OsBORN, Lslam under the Arabs. London : Longmans, Green.
MuiR, The Coran. London : Christian Knowledge Society.
KOELLE, Mohammed and Mohanimedanism. London : Riving-
ton's, 1889.
Arnold, Lslam and Christianity. London : Longmans.
Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Lslam.
Ameer Ali, Life and Teachings of Mohammed. London :
Williams.
Appendix. 17;
The Missionary Herald, 1 820-1 S94. Boston : The American
Board.
DwiGHT, Christianity Revived in the East. New York : Baker
& Scribner, 1850.
Anderson, Missions to the Oriental Churches. 2 vols. Boston :
Congregational Publishing Society, 1S72.
Wheeler, Letters from Eden. Boston : American Tract Society,
i863.
Wheeler, Ten Years on the Euphrates. Boston : American
Tract Society, i860.
'SNyiee.I.Y.V., Daughters of Armenia. New York : American Board,
1891.
Prime, Forty Years in the Turkish Empire., or Memoirs of
Rev. William Goodell, D.D., Boston : American Tract Society, 1877.
Laurie, Missions and Science. Boston : American Board, 1S85.
Laurie, Dr. Grajit and the Mountain Xestorians. Boston :
Gould & Lincoln, 1S53.
Jessup, The Mohammedan Missionary Problem. Philadelphia :
Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1879.
?,z\\\\:iVVLY.Vi., Autobiography. New York : Randolph, 1888.
Hamlin, Among the Turks. New York : Robt. Carter & Bro.
Hamlin, My Life and Times. Boston : Congregational S. S. and
Pub. Soc.
ARMENIAN HISTORY.
Moses Chorenensis, Armenian LListory, Arm. and Lat. London :
William and George Whiston, 1736.
Langlois, Victor, Collection des Ilistoriens anciens et modcrnes de
I'Armenie, en Frani,ais. Vol. i, Ilistoriens grecs et syriens traduits
anciennement en Armenien. Vol. II. Historiens armeniens de
5° siccle. 8° . Paris, 1S67.
Dulaurier. Reeueil des Ilistoriens des Croisades. Documents
Armeniens. Paris, 1869. Folio with fac-simile reproductions. Pp.
855. Arm. and French.
Dulaurier, Etude sur L Organisation Politique, I\'eligieuse et
Administrative du Royaume de la Petite-Arinenie a I'epoque des
Croisades. Paris, 1862.
Lenormant, Sur I' Ethncgraphie et V Ilistoire de I'Armenie,
avant les Ach^me'nides. In Lettres Assyriologiques. 1871.
I 74 The Crisis in Turkey.
Inscriptions d'ttn Reliqtiaire Armenien. With plates. Paris,
1883.
Neumann, The History of Vartan by Elisaeiis. Translated from
the Armenian. London, 1830.
Malan, The Life and Times of St. Gregory the Ilhiminalor.
Translated from Armenian. London, 1868.
Chamich, History of Armenia. Translated from Armenian into
English by Avdall. Calcutta, 1827.
Stubbs, William. The Medieval Kingdoms of Cyprtis and Ar-
menia. In Seventeen Lectures, etc. 1886.
Genealogical Catalogue of the Kings of Armenia. Oriental Trans-
lation Fund. Vol. ii. London, 1S34.
Gabrielian, The Armcniajis or People of Ararat. Philadelphia :
Allen, Lane & Scott, 1892.
ARMENIAN LITERATURE.
Neve, Felix, Z 'Armaiie Chretienne ct sa Litterature. Louvain,
1886.
Catalogue des ancicnncs traductions Arnienicnnes, sieclcs iv.-xiii.
8°' pp. 783. Venezia, 1889.
DwiGHT, Catalogue of all Works kno7vn to exist in the Armenian
Language earlier than the Seventeetith Century. American Oriental
Society. Vol. iii. 1&53.
FORTESCUE, The Art>ienian Church, History, Literature, Doc-
trine. London, 1872.
Issaverdenz, The Divine Ordinances according to the Catholic
Armenian Ritual. Venice, 1867.
Alishan, Armenian Popular Songs. Armenian and English.
Venice, 1867.
Lord Byron's Armenian Exercises and Poet?y. Armenian and
English. Venice, 1S70.
GENERAL INDEX.
Aberdeen, Lord, 72
Aghtamar, 141, 145
Alexander, 53, 133
Americans
Position, 67, 148
Number, 149
Work, 141, 148-151
Influence, 152-154
Interests, 147-166
Anglo-Armenian Assoc, 69
Anglo-Turkish Convention
See England
Armenia
Land
Name, 44, 46
Extent, 45
Aspects, 44-46
Inhabitants, 45, 46
Condition, 9, 15, 32, 35, 39,
42, 46, 62-65
Autonomy, 69, 81
Race
Origin, 132
Number, 45, 142
Distribution, 44
Characteristics, 52, 140
Condition, chap, i., ii., iii.,
iv.
" Revolution," Preface,
Chap, i., 69, 81, 1G7
Progress, 79, 1 1 7, 154
History
Biblical, 132, 133
Classical, 134, 135
Armenian Sources, 144
In General, 53
Church
Apostolic Tradition, 136
Founder, 136
Doctrine, 137
Form, 137, 144
Heroic Struggle, 53
Decline, 139
Reform, 140, 143, 154
Catholicos, 137, 138
Political Significance, 138
Future, 138
Literature
Language, 132, 143
Pre-Christian, 143
Golden Age, 144
Second Period, 144
Modern Revival, 146
General Character, 144
Alassacre
See Massacres
Arnaut, 98
175
1/6
General Index.
Austria, Preface, 104
Author, Purpose, Preface, 147
B
Bagdad, 48
Baibourt, 46
Bashi-Bazouk, gS, 102
Bashkalla, 16, 49
Berlin Treaty. See Treaties
Bibliography, Appendix E
BiLOTTi, Consul, 113
Bishop, Mrs., 62, 67, 131, 154
Bismarck, Preface, 78
Bitlis, 12, 16, 37, 43
Blue-Books. See England
Blowitz, M. de, 83
Bosnia, 83, 84
Britannica, Encyc, 48, 49
Bryce, Hon. James, Preface, 69
Bulgaria, 73, 83, 96, loi, 126
Byron, Lord, 154
Byzantine Empire, 53, 134
Cairo University, 75
Castle, Kurdish, 49
Catholicos. See Armenia
Censorship, 73, Append. C
Chermside, Consul, 113
Chios, 97
Chosroes, 137
Christianity, Toleration. See
Mohammedanism
Churchill, 96, 100
Circassians, 73
Code Napoleon, 89
Commission of Inquiry. See
Massacres
Consular Reports.
British. See England
United States, 66
Council of Chalcedon, 157
Courts. See Turkey
Crete. See Massacres
Crimean War, 72
Crisis, 33, 35, 82, 84, Preface
Cyprus Convention, 72, 76
D
Diarbekir, 48
Diplomacy
American, Preface, Append.
A, B
European, Preface, Chap. v.
Turkish, 70, 77, 93
E
Eastern Question, Preface, 68,
85
Education, 87, 140, 143, 150,
155
Egypt, 83
England
Attitude, Preface
Responsibility, 69, 73, 76,
7g, 103, 128. See Treaties
EfTorts, 76-79, 123
Consular Reports, Preface,
48, 66, 68, 74, 77, 78, 112
Erzerum, 46, 62, 66, 113
Erzingan, 21, 23, 46
Everett, Consul, 113
Fanaticism. See Mohamme-
danism
General Index.
177
Franck, Preface, 78, 104, 107,
13S, 140, 149
Freeman, 79, 85, 88, 117
Genghis Khan, 136
Germany, Preface, 78, 104
Gladstone, on
Consular Reports, Preface
Sassoun Massacre, 121-125
Turkish Rule, 126-130
Goschen, 78
Granville, 77
(iREECE, 83, 89, 97, 127, 133, 154
Gregory, The Illuminator. See
Armenian Church
Independent, The, 54, 95, loi
Information
Channels, 66
Hanger of, Preface, i, 15, 16,
54, 62
Sultan's, 13, 89, 92, 93
Islam. See IMoliammedanism
Italy, Preface, 104
Jacobite, 54,
jESsup, 75
Jesuit, 137
Jews, 68, 89
K
H
Hallward, Consul, 16
Hamlin, Cyrus, 81, 167
Hannibal, 134
Harpoot, 48
IIatti Humayoun, 72
Haiti Sherif, 71
Herodotus, 133
Herzegovina, 183
Hughes, 89
Humanity, Preface, i, 33, 123,
127, 129
Kallay, M. de, 84
Kermanshah, 46
Khrimian, Catholicos, 138
Motto on Title-page
Khoshab, Castle, 50
Knapp, Attack on, 157
Koran. See Mohammedanism
Kurdistan
Country, 46
Kurds, 48-52
" Hamidieh" Troops, 1-30,
126
Outrages, 54-69, 157-164
Ibrahim Pasha, 71
Identical Note, 76
"Illuminator," 53, 137, 13S.
See Armenian Church
Imperial Rescript, 71
<9
Latham, 96
I.AYARD, 96, 99
Lebanon, 93
Leon VI., 136
Lloyd, Consul-Gen., 66
178
General Index.
M
MacCall, Canon, 72
MacGahan, 96, 103
Malatiah, 46
Mamelukes, 136
Maronites, 99
Massacres in Turkey
Greek (1822), 96-98
Nestorian (1850), 96, 99
Syrian (i860), 96, 99
Cretan (1867), 104
Bulgarian (1876), 96, loi
Armenian (1877), 105-107
Yezidi (1892), 108
Armenian (1894), Chap. I.
Victims, Dedication
Evidence, 1-42
Uncalled for, 21, 23, 26, 36
Premeditated, 17, 18
Ordered, 7, 12, 14, 20, 2S-30
Long Duration, 21, 31
Number Slain, 11, 15, 24
Manner, 20-23, 26, 31
Violation of Women, 15,22,
27, 28, 39, 41
Denials, 12, 25, 27
Concealment, n-15, 29-34,
40
Commission of Inquiry, Pref-
ace, 103
Gladstone's Opinion, 121-125
MiDHAT Pasha, 86
Missions. See Americans
Other Missions, 149
MOHAMMEDANISiM
Founder, no, 125
Koran, 89, 99, in, 115
Exclusive, 115, n6
Spirit, 22, 74, 89, no, 167
Rationalistic Types, 116
" Tolerance," 42, 71, 74, 84,
107, 114, 127, 169
Converts from, 68, 114
Union with State, in, 119