1 'Three Years' War,' p. 504: 'The whole question of devastation is
indeed one of degree. Two years previously the correspondent of the
Daily Chronicle had stated, " From end to end the Orange River Colony
lies ruined and starving' {vide Daily Chronicle, May 28, 1900).
' The state of prosperity of the commandos varied much in the different
districts, in inverse proportion to the amount of attention that had been
paid them lately by the columns ' (General Elliot's Eeport, Cd. 988).
2 ' We had to beat the Boers, and it was done thoroughly, yet behind it
all was the idea of living, in the years to come, on terms of friendship and
equality with the defeated of the day ' {Birmingham Post, December 29,
1903).
' We are not vindictive ; we are not accustomed to bear malice ; and
our enemies of yesterday, if they surrender to-day, will be welcome
to-morrow as friends ' (extract from speech of Mr. Chamberlain delivered
at the Guildhall, February 13, 1902).
' The decision to continue to resist the British forces by guerilla methods
was made hj the Boer Generals. The consequent destruction of property
was as obvious and foreseen a result of that decision as the answering dis-
charge of a British battery whose fire had been deliberately " drawn " by
the Boer gunners' (Saturday Review, May 16, 1903).
2—2
20 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
resource. It v>as, therefore, unreasonably surmised that on
the conchision of peace the Boers would be ready to ' bury the
hatchet,' and to ' let bygones be bygones.' ' The fact,' wrote
Lord Kitchener, ' that a spirit of conciliation has marked
the concluding phase of the negotiations may well induce a
hope that the agreement just signed will lead at an early date
to a final reconciliation between the British and Dutch races
in South Africa.' ^
1 Cd. 986, June 1, 1902. Lord Kitchener's prognostication has been
horribly falsified in the event, but it was a perfectly just interpretation of
the feeling at the time. The peace of Vereeniging ' was an epoch-making
event, and both parties were somewhat carried away by the enthusiasm of
the moment. John Bull, bluff and hearty, extended everywhere the right
hand of friendship ; Brother Boer, however callous and calculating, could
not but take that hand, even though the grip might make hiin wince. The
glamour lasted on the Boer side a fortnight ' {The Times, October 6, 1902).
CHAPTEK II
CONCENTRATION
' That in case of general devastation the pq^ceful population may be
detained in so-called concentration camps there is no doubt ' (' Inter-
national Law,' L. Oppenheim, vol. ii., p. 122).
' Whenever a belligerent resorts to general devastation, he ought, if
possible, to make some provision for the unfortunate peaceful part of the
population of the devastated tract of territory. It would be more humane
to take them away into captivity instead of letting them perish on the
spot. The practice resorted to during the South African War, to house the
victims of devastation in concentration camps, must be approved. The
purpose of war may even oblige a belligerent to confine a population
forcibly in concentration camps ' {Ibid., p. 154).
The second reason given by the Boer delegates at the
Vereeniging Conference for the conclusion of peace reads as
follows : ' Secondly, that the placing of our families in the
concentration camps has brought on an unheard-of condition
of suffering and sickness, so that in a comparatively short
time about 20,000 of our beloved have died there, and that
the horrid probability has arisen that by continuing the war
our whole nation may die out in this way.'^ However much
it may have favoured the ' survival of the fittest,' the
extermination of their race could hardly be contemplated with
equanimity by the Boer leaders, since the desire of reproduc-
tion is probably the strongest passion which Nature has
given to mankind.-
The history of the refugee camps — for they were never
1 ' Three Years' War,' p. 504.
- ' La Nature, avant tout, veut la reproduction des etres ; partout,
depuis le sommet des montagnes jusqu'au fond de I'Oct'an, la vie a peur
de mourir. Dieu, pour conserver son ouvrage, a done etabli cette loi, que
la plus grande jouissance de tous les etres vivants fut I'acte de la genera-
tion ' (Alfred de Musset, ' La Confession d'un Enfant du Siecle,' p. 49).
21
22 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
known by any other designation in the Orange River Colony —
is contained in innumerable Blue-Books and pamphlets. Their
formation aroused a vast amount of criticism, and produced a
controversy which possesses a literature of its own. But it is
not proposed to touch upon any controversial matter in this con-
nection, or to discuss the question of adequate accommodation,
proper feeding, excessive mortality, and other kindred subjects.
It is, however, necessary to point out the reasons for the organi-
zation of these camps, and to trace very briefly their history.
The clearance and devastation of the colony, of which some
account has already been given, embraced the removal of the
inhabitants from their homes. Devastation was accompanied
by deportation, and deportation was followed by detention.
The Dutch in South Africa are a notoriously sensual race,
and the domesticity of the Boer is proverbial. It was thought
that pressure might be brought to bear on the commandos
through their women folk, and that they would not long be
able to bear separation from their families. All is said to be
fair in love and war ; it was, apparently, expected that the
Boer would be prepared to abandon war for the sake of love.
There was also a military reason, a political one, and one
prompted by the dictates of humanity.^ To leave women and
children on the farms was merely to supply the enemy with
intelligence posts and supply depots. General Botha's
declaration that the Boers ' never by means of women and
children received information regarding operations of war '
may be taken as the expression of a pious opinion.- Under
1 ' In the execution of this task of denuding the country of supplies the
British military authorities might have chosen either of two methods of
treating the Boer population. It was open to them to throw the burden
of removing and sustaining this population upon the Boer leaders, or to
undertake it themselves. There can be no question as to which of these
two courses was the more advantageous from a military point of view.
They chose the course which they knew to be the least advantageous to
themselves, but which they believed to be the most humane ' {Saturday
lieview, May 16, 1903).
- General Botha to Lord Eoberts, September 20, 1900 {Manchester
Guardian).
' The Boers subsequently prided themselves, and with justice, upon the
assistance rendered by their women during this stage of the war ' {Satur-
day Review, May 16, 1903).
CONCENTKATION 23
the terms of some of the proclamations we had promised
protection to those burghers who took the oath of neutrality
and remained quietly on their farms.^ With the development
of the clearance policy, certain areas were evacuated and our
promise was consequently broken. As we were unable to
extend our protection to their farms, these burghers were
given the option of residing with their families within our
lines. At a later stage no option was given, and families
were forcibly evicted. In its final phase the deportation of
the inhabitants was essential to save them from starvation,
and eventually under these circumstances alone were they
removed.
Life in the refugee camps may possibly prove to have
benefited the present rising generation, and the results of
the education received in them are in the womb of the future ;
but their upkeep was a most costly business,^ and, from a
military point of view, their institution was an utter failure.
* The scheme, which was designed to bring pressure to bear
upon the Boers in the field, instead of goading them into
surrender, was welcomed by them as a means by which to rid
themselves of impedimenta.' ^
1 Vide Lord Roberts' proclamations, dated March 14 and 15, 1900.
Burghers in question were subsequently granted a special gratuity, which
is dealt with in Chapter IX.
2 ' What enormous amounts were spent for the support of the concen-
tration camps ! From September 1, 1901, to June 30, 1902, the average
population was 42,628, and the average costs were ^89,223 3s. lOd. per
month. In addition to this, the sum of £9,055 19s. lid. was spent on
camp schools from July 1 to December 31, 1902 ' (' Concentration Camps,'
by the Eev. W. Robertson, Dutch Reformed Church, p. 12). The above
figures apply to the Orange River Colony only.
3 The Times, July 12, 1902, In the American Civil War a continual
source of anxiety to those fighting was the welfare of the women left alone
and defenceless with black servants. It was no small advantage to the
commandos to know that, whatever hardships deportation might entail,
their families were being well cared for in the British lines, and anyhow,
protected from outrage by Kaffirs.
' One is only too thankful nowadays to know that our wives are under
English protection ' (De Wet to Vereeniging delegates, vide ' Three Years'
War ').
General De AVet's view may be contrasted with that of Lord Courtney :
' When they heard of the horrors which had been heaped upon those
closest and dearest to them — deserted in the field, robbed of provisions,
24 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
Refugee camps wore established on September 22, 1900.
On that date a Government Notice announced that ' Camps
for burghers who vohmtarily surrendered were being formed
in Pretoria and at Bloemfontein.'^ But the number of
burghers who elected to live thus was at first not large. The
return for May, 1901, shows the existence of only one camp
with a population of 335. By the following November, how-
ever, fifteen camps had been formed, and their inhabitants
numbered 45,083. This was the highest total reached. In
December orders were issued to bring in no more families
' unless it was clear that they must starve if they were left on
the veldt.'- At the conclusion of peace the population of the
refugee camps was given as 39,948. This number was slightly
increased during June, 1902, by the incoming of certain
families who had remained out with the commandos until the
end ; but by the end of October it had been reduced to 11,800.
The last refugee camp was closed in February, 1903.
The hubbub aroused by, and the prominence given to, the
formation of the concentration camps for whites completely
overshadowed an equally important part of the clearance
policy — the deportation of natives. The committee of ladies
who visited South Africa in 1901 furnished no report on this
essential portion of the concentration system. It may, there-
fore, claim a somewhat closer examination than that accorded
to the sister organization.
The same military reasons applied to a certain extent to
blacks as well as to whites. ' The whole intention of the
clothing, and covering, open to all the attacks of the worst character to
which they could be made subject — then their resolution gave way and
they accepted peace' (TJie Times, December 13, 190B).
^ Vide Section 4, Government Notice No. iii. of 1900.
2 Despatch of Lord Kitchener, dated December 6, 1901, Cd. 902.
' When once this responsibihty [i.e., the sustenance of the non-com-
batant population] was laid upon them, or, in other words, when we fought
the guerilla leaders on equal terms, the roving commandos were speedily
compelled to surrender ' {Saturday Review, May 16, 1903).
' As the policy of concentration camps was not completely carried out
here, the amount of poverty and distress to be dealt with will probably
exceed that of other districts ' (Extract from Eeport of Resident Magistrate
Heilbron, July 1, 1902).
CONCENTRATION 25
Commander-in-Chief presumably was to remove from the
outlying districts persons who, by their presence there, could
have rendered aid voluntarily or compulsorily to the enemy in
the field.' ^ But the method adopted in the native camps was
much more salutary than that which obtained in the camps
for whites, and its results, from an economic point of view,
were eminently more satisfactory. A policy which tended to
produce a love of ease and idleness by the provision of luxuries
previously unknown to the recipients was replaced by an
honest attempt to inculcate the principle of self-help, and to
teach the Kaffir the ' dignity of labour.'
' In the Orange River Colony the blacks are fewer in pro-
portion to the Europeans than in any other part of South
Africa,'- but the number of native camps was naturally nearly
double that of the white, and the population of the former
eventually exceeded that of the latter by some 20,000.^ The
natives of the Orange River Colony are, generally speaking,
for people of their class, extremely well-to-do. Under the
process of devastation the Kaffir kraal had suffered in an
equal degree with the Boer farm, and the losses of the native
in kind were frequently as considerable as those of his master.
In the first instance, the native camps had gradually grown
up, usually in the neighbourhood of the dorps, by the side of
the burgher camps, and both were controlled by the same
department. In August, 1901, however, a system, adopted in
the Transvaal originally for the purpose of replacing all mine
* boys ' at the time in army employ, was applied to the Orange
River Colony. The main objects of this system were, firstly,
to render the camps practically self-supporting, and, secondly,
to make them depots for the supply of labour for the army.
The carrying out of these objects entailed a vast amount of
reorganization. If the natives were to create their own food-
supply, ground suitable for mealies, Kaffir corn, and pumpkins
— their staple foods — must be broken up and seed sown. The
I'Cd. 903.
'^ Bryce, ' Impressions of South Africa.'
3 Number of Camps, 30 ; population, 60,000. These were the highest
totals reached.
26 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
blockhouse system was, at this time, confined practically to
the main railway-line. The only areas, therefore, thoroughly
protected and available for cultivation were those in the
vicinity of the railway.
A new department to deal with this question — the Native
Refugee Department — was created, with headquarters at
Bloemfontein. The outlying native camps, with the exception
of those at Thaba N'Chu and near Harrismith, were brought
into the railway. The sites for the new camps were all selected
north of Bloemfontein, because that portion of the colony
enjoys earlier and more certain rains than do the southern
districts. In order to obtain suitable ground within the
limited area available, many of the older camps were split up
and smaller camps formed. At the time of this reorganiza-
tion there were some 23,000 natives, men, women, and
children, in the outlying camps, and practically all had to be
removed with their belongings and live-stock. A native's
goods and chattels are, fortunately, not extensive ; he can as
a rule, without great inconvenience, ' take up his bed and
walk.' The concentration of these camps, eight in number,
on to the main railway-line was carried out in the short space
of a month, in spite of the shortage of trucks due to military
movements.
Under the old regime the natives had been rationed by
contract, and the cost for adults worked out at 4kl. a head
per diem. A certain portion of this expenditure was recovered
by deducting £1 per mensem from the pay of natives employed
by the army whose families were in the camps. But the
* boys ' never appreciated such deductions, and very seldom
understood them. The question of rations was a difficult
one, because the comparatively wealthy native was always
willing to pose as a pauper, if by that means he could obtain
a free issue. It will be observed that, contrary to the system
adopted in the concentration camps, the natives were expected
to pay for provisions if they had the wherewithal to do so.
The following extract from a circular issued to the camp
superintendents was obviously framed with the object of
inducing the inmates of the camps to work : ' All natives shall
CONCENTRATION 27
be rationed after the 1st of October under the following con-
ditions :
' (a) Natives who are working for the Government, or culti-
vate land for their own benefit, shall be at liberty to purchase
mealie meal for their own use at |d. per lb., but not to obtain
more than half a bag at a time.
* {!)) Natives who will not work for the Government, or
cultivate land for their own benefit, shall be at liberty to
purchase mealie meal for their own use at Id. per lb., but not
to obtain more than half a bag at a time.
* (c) Natives who are destitute, and have no means of
purchasing, shall receive free rations of mealie meal at the
rate of 1| lbs. per diem for those over twelve years of age, and
1 lb. for those under twelve years, those under twelve months
not included.
' All natives can be supplied with salt free (1 ounce per
head per day).
* No stoppage will be made by the department from the
natives' pay for the month of September and onwards. The
Government, in undertaking to sell mealie meal to the natives
who work at a price less than half cost, is desirous to
encourage the native to work or help himself by cultivating
and growing sufficient food for his own use. Cases of
destitution will have to be helped, but at the same time the
Government is anxious to avoid a heavy expenditure in relief,
which may tend to create a spirit of laziness and a pauperizing
of the natives.'
But ' it was found almost impossible to withdraw the free
issue originally given, and in this respect the work of
reorganization proceeded very slowly.' The December return
shows that, out of a population of some 46,000, about 16,000
were still on the free list.
The compound system, familiar in connection with the
mining industry, was adopted in the native camps. Every-
thing which the natives were likely to require was supplied on
the spot. All sales were conducted under the eye of the
camp superintendent, and articles were retailed at as near
cost price as possible. A small store was opened in each
28 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
camp for the sale of * luxuries,' such as golden syrup, candles,
tobacco, corned beef, clothing, etc. The provision of a varied
diet improved the health and spirit of the natives, and acted
indirectly as an incentive to labour.
The inmates of the camps naturally included the families
and relatives, not only of ' boys ' employed by the army, but
also of those who had taken service with the commandos.
In December, 1901, some 3,000 natives had been supplied to
the British forces, while about 400 were in private service.
In addition to these, 1,000 approximately were employed as
night watchmen, to prevent small parties of Boers from looting
the camps and crossing the railway.
Next to the supply of labour for the army the question of
cultivation was considered. It has already been pointed out
that the sites of the camps had been selected with this object,
and the inducements held out have already been dwelt upon.
But certain difficulties were encountered in persuading the
women to hoe and pick, and in making them realize that all
crops would be for their own benefit. During the war cattle
for ploughing were scarce ; a large number of those otherwise
available were suffering from disease. Inoculation still
further hampered the work. Moreover, military considera-
tions had to be complied with. The Commander-in-Chief
forbade the sowing of any land within one mile of a block-
house, because of the cover the crop might afford to the
enemy desiring to attack or cross the line ; but he approved
of deserted farms along the railway being cultivated by the
natives for their own benefit. In spite of difiiculties, about
31,000 acres in all were broken up. Vegetable and pumpkin
seeds were issued; mealies, Kaffir corn, seed oats, and potatoes
were sown. The authorities reserved the right to purchase any
surplus grain grown, and the sale of such surplus assisted
very materially in making the department self-supporting.^
When the natives first came into the camps they were in
an impoverished condition, and the death-rate was very high.
This excessive mortality was attributed to loss of stock and
^ The actual cost per head a day was eventually reduced to a fraction less
than one penny three farthmgs.
CONCENTRATION 29
consequent want of milk ; to declimitization, which natives
are Kttle able to stand ; to the fact that huts were too close
together, and not up to the ordinary kraal standard. As the
organization was improved, however, and medical inspections
became more frequent, the death-rate was reduced almost to
normal. The birth-rate was low, probably on account of so
large a proportion of the male population being absent with
columns and commandos. Medical attendance was given free
of charge, and medical comforts were supplied to mothers and
children on a doctor's certificate.
The system which has been briefly sketched had many
advantages to recommend it. Actual and reliable figures are
not available, but the whole cost of the Orange Eiver Colony
Native Eefugee Department is infinitesimal when compared
with the sum expended on the upkeep of the concentration
camps. The natives were not pauperized and led to believe
that the Government would go on feeding them indefinitely.
In a spirit differing vastly from that which prevailed in the
concentration camps they realized the situation, and accepted
all that was done for them as partial compensation for the loss
of their stock and crops, and for the hardships inseparable
from a state of war. Had not the war been followed by two
dry seasons, the natives had been put in a fair way to start
life afresh on the cessation of hostilities.
Lord Milner estimated that the ' Vereeniging terms entitled
something over 33,000 ' prisoners of war ' to be restored to
liberty.' ^ Exactitude cannot be guaranteed, but it is necessary
to discover approximately what proportion of these belonged
to the Orange Eiver Colony.- Of the 24,000 in prisoners'
camps in St. Helena, India, Bermuda, and Ceylon, 11,685
were Free Staters. Out of 1,000 interned at Simons Town,
602 returned to the Orange Eiver Colony. Out of 1,200
' prisoners elsewhere in South Africa,' the Orange Eiver
1 Cd. 1551.
2 ' At the declaration of peace there were 44,969 persons in the burgher
camps of the Transvaal, besides 21,038 in the Natal burgher camps, and
15,000 prisoners of war belonginj^ to the Transvaal and a large number of
surrendered burghers, who had never been in concentration camps '
(Report on Transvaal Repatriation, Cd. 1551, p. 31).
30 THE AFTERMATH OF WAR
Colony claimed 547. ' Of the rest, the great majority had
been allowed to live in concentration camps, while the
balance were on parole in different parts of South Africa and
in Europe.' Those in the Orange River Colony concentration
camps have already been considered ; perhaps 10,000 may be
taken as the number of Free Staters and their families in
camp in Natal and the Cape Colony. Returns show that
outside the burgher camps 412 Free Staters were on parole
in Cape Colony, 275 in Natal, and 30 in Portugal. The
number of refugees in Basutoland and in the various towns in
the Orange River Colony was considerable. These people had
preferred to live at their own expense rather than avail them-
selves of the accommodation provided in the refugee camps,
probably on account of the comparatively greater liberty
which they thus enjoyed. They belonged, as a rule, to a
rather more prosperous class than the ordinary refugee ; but
it is to be feared that in many cases, anticipating the end of
the war long before it came, they spent most of their available
funds in eking out an existence very little superior to that
provided at Government expense. The number of Free
Staters who surrendered on the Vereeniging terms was 6,455 ;^
and it has been calculated that the women and children who
remained with the Free State commandos until the end or
who were practically starving on farms numbered 5,000.
The Orange River Colony Repatriation Department, there-
fore, at the conclusion of hostilities was called upon to deal
with a scattered population of, roughly, 80,000 souls. Before,
however, describing the measures adopted to restore these
people to their homes, it may be useful to examine Articles 2
and 10 of the Vereeniging terms, under which the department