lectures, or in perusing religious discourses. His countenance wore
the appearance of seriousness, mental reflection, and inward devotion ;
and all men of penetration clearly saw that he was meditating some
great design, and that the ambition and ostentation of his character
had turned itself towards a new and more dangerous object. His re-
signing his commission of chancellor without even consulting the king,
which he pretended was necessary, in order to detach himself from all
secular affairs, and leave him to the sole exercise of his spiritual duties,
was in reality intended to break off his connections with Henry, and
show him that the primate of England was no longer to continue an
obsequious courtier. His first public appearance as a churchman was
at the council of Tours, which was held to consider the schism then
existing in regard to the papacy, which was claimed by two competi-
tors. Cardinal Roland had been elected under the name of Alexander
Blrs. Ep. 27.Gervasc, 1384.
246 ECCLESIASTICAL SERIES. [SECOND
III. ; but Cardinal Octavian had the support of a powerful faction who
were determined to maintain him in his usurpation. For several days
he besieged Alexander in St Peter's church, and at length obliged him
to take refuge in France. The synod of Tours put an end to the
controversy. In this assembly, Becket figured among the most emi-
nent prelates. At his entrance into the city, he was received by the
magistrates and most of the members of the council. The pope showed
him particular marks of affection and esteem ; and through his inter-
est he procured several canons and decrees to be made in favour of
ecclesiastics, whom he represented as oppressed and deprived of their
right through the ambition and avarice of the laity. Immediately on
his return to England, he began to exert himself with great vigour in
defence of the privileges of the church ; nor did he wait till any en-
croachments had been offered on the part of the crown. Besides prose-
cuting at law several of the nobility and others for lands and tene-
ments which he pretended they had usurped from the see of Canterbury,
he laid claim to the custody of the castle and tower of Rochester, then
in the king's hands. He summoned the earl of Clare to surrender the
barony of Tunbridge, which had remained in the family of that noble-
man since the Conquest ; and he excommunicated William, lord of the
manor of Aynsford in Kent, for disputing with him the right of patron-
age to that church. In this emergency, William applied to the king,
who wrote to Becket, expressing his displeasure that he had not ac-
quainted him before passing the censure, and desiring that it might be
removed. The archbishop replied by letter for they had broken off
all personal intercourse that it belonged to the church, and not to the
king, to direct him whom he should absolve, and whom excommuni-
cate ; and it was not till after many threats and entreaties that Becket
was induced to comply with the royal mandate. Henry now became
aware how little he had understood the character and genius of his
minister; but though he found himself grievously mistaken, he was
resolved not to desist from his former intention of restraining clerical
usurpation. The violence and obstinacy of Becket had greatly alien-
ated the minds both of the king and the nobility ; and it wanted but a
plausible occasion to bring them to an open rupture. There Avas at
that time no distinct line of separation between the civil and ecclesias-
tical power ; and their mutual encroachment on each other was the
cause of perpetual dissension, and frequently of gross violations of
order. The clergy had renounced all immediate subordination to the
magistrate ; they openly declined in criminal accusations, to appear on
trial before the courts of justice, and were gradually introducing a
similar exemption in civil causes. Spiritual penalties, they contended,
were the proper punishment for their offences, which the church alone
had the authority to inflict. Holy orders thus became a full protec-
tion for all sorts of vices and enormities, for as ecclesiastics had ex-
tremely multiplied in England, and many of them were consequently
of very low character, crimes of the deepest dye, murders, robberies,
adulteries, and rapes, were daily committed by them with impunity.
Since the king's accession, it was found that not less than a hundred
murders had been perpetrated by men of that profession, who had
never been called to account for their offences. Among other in-
stances of these atrocities, a clerk in Worcestershire had debauched a
PERIOD.] THOMAS A BECKKT. 247
gentleman's daughter, and afterwards murdered the father. The king
demanded that the criminal should be delivered up, and tried in the
civil court. Becket refused to comply ; ordered the malefactor to be
confined in the prison of the bishop of the diocese, instead of being
committed to the hands of the king's officers, and insisted that the cen-
sure of the church superseded the jurisdiction of the magistrate, sinee
it would be iniquitous to try a man twice upon the same accusation,
and for the same offence. These privileges, which the clergy had car-
ried to such an extravagant height, Henry determined to curtail ; but
he met with a decided opposition by the archbishop, who stood firmly
in defence of their immunities, and would not submit to the least in-
fringement of them. The king was equally decided, and having sum-
moned an assembly of all the prelates of England to meet at West-
minster, he put to them the concise and direct question : Whether
or not they were willing to submit to the ancient laws and customs of
the kingdom ? The bishops unanimously replied, that they were will-
ing, " saving their own order," an answer which provoked the king to
the highest indignation. He instantly quitted the assembly; nor could
his threats or displeasure extort any thing beyond a general and inde-
finite promise of obedience to the ancient customs. 4 Not content with a
declaration so vague, and in order to define expressly those customs
with which he required compliance, Henry summoned a general coun-
cil, or convention of the nobility and prelates at Clarendon, to whom
he submitted the same important question. The barons all adhered to
the king's party, and most of the bishops were gained over by the court,
or overawed by the general combination against them. At this con-
vention, several laws were enacted relative to the privileges of the
clergy, commonly called * the constitutions of Clarendon,' by which the
boundary between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities was more
clearly defined. By passing so many ecclesiastical ordinances in a
national assembly composed of clergy and laity, Henry fully established
the superiority of the legislative, above all papal decrees, or spiritual
canons, and gained a signal victory over the usurpations of the church.
But as he knew the bishops would take the earliest opportunity of dis-
puting the legality of these constitutions, he resolved that they should
all set their seal to them, and give a promise to observe them. To
this none of the prelates dared to object, except Becket, who, though
urged by all the principal barons and nobles in the kingdom, obsti-
nately withheld his assent. The tears and entreaties of his friends, and
the desertion of his own brethren, at length obliged him to comply ;
and he promised with an oath, " legally, with good faith, and without
fraud or reserve," to obey the constitution. Henry thinking that every
thing was now firmly adjusted, sent to France to request the ratifica-
tion of Pope Alexander ; but that pontiff, though he was under the
most important obligations to the king, plainly saw that these laws were
calculated to establish the independency of England on the papacy, and
of the royal power on the clergy, and condemned them in the strongest
terms ; and with the exception of six articles out of sixteen, which he
agreed to ratify for the sake of peace, he abrogated, annulled, and re-
jected them.
Stephan. 29. Gcrvase 1385.
248 ECCLESIASTICAL SERIES. [SECOND
Becket had formerly expressed his sorrow for having engaged at
the synod of Westminster to conform to the ancient customs of the
kingdom, and was with great difficulty prevailed upon not to withdraw
his submission. He had again, by his seal and oath, solemnly pro-
mised to observe the constitutions of Clarendon ; but when he found
from the pope's withholding his assent, that he might hope for support
in opposition, he began to repent of his compliance, and endeavoured
to engage all the other prelates in a confederacy to maintain their com-
mon rights and privileges, in which he represented the interest and
honour of God to be so deeply concerned. He retired from court ;
redoubled his austerities in proportion to the enormity of his supposed
offence, and even suspended himself from exercising any part of his
sacred functions until he should receive absolution from the pope,
which was easily granted. Alexander, willing to heal this breach be-
tween the king and the archbishop, sent Rotro, a Norman prelate,
over to England for that purpose ; but Henry would consent to no
accommodation unless the constitutions of Clarendon were confirmed
by a bull from his holiness. Resolved to take vengeance on Becket
for his refractory behaviour, and, if possible, to crush him by means
of that very power which he was so obstinate in supporting, he applied
to the pope to make Roger, archbishop of York, his legate for England.
But the crafty pontiff, aware that this was intended to restrain the
jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, would grant the com-
mission only on condition that the legate should not be empowered to
execute any act prejudicial to the authority of that prelate. Henry
was more and more exasperated at this disappointment, and seeing how
inefficient the legantine power would be clogged with such a proviso,
sent back the commission by the same messenger that brought it.
Despairing of the king's favour, perhaps dreading his resentment, Becket
twice endeavoured to make his escape beyond seas ; but before he could
reach the coast of France, the wind turning brought him back to
England. On repairing to Canterbury, he found the king's officers
plundering his palace, but they desisted on his appearance. To pre-
vent any further attempts to escape, Henry summoned a parliament
at Northampton, which met in October, 1165, and which he pur-
posed to make the instrument of his vengeance against the inflexible
prelate. The king's marischal had been instigated to sue Becket in
the ecclesiastical court, for some lands as held of the see of Can-
terbury ; and on pretence that justice was not done him, he was
instructed to appeal from the archbishop's to the king's court. On
the day appointed for trying the cause, the primate who alleged sick-
ness for not appearing personally, sent four knights to represent some
irregularities in the appeal, and attest certain defects in the proof.
But his defence was not sustained ; the four knights were accused of
offering false evidence to the court, and with difficulty escaped being
sent to prison. Becket at last found it necessary to obey the king's
summons ; he appeared at Northampton, expressed his readiness to jus-
tify his cause against the marischal, and to submit his conduct to the
great council of the nation. He insisted that the proceedings of the
church court were perfectly regular ; that the iniquity of the marischal's
claim would be proved from the sheriff's testimony ; that he had him-
self discovered no contempt for the king's court ; and even should it
PERIOD.] THOMAS A BECKET. 249
be found that he had been guilty of non-appearance, the laws had af-
fixed a very slight penalty to that offence. But it was in vain that
Becket urged these excuses. The barons were ready to vote whatever
sentence the king might please to dictate, and even the bishops, what-
ever secret attachment they might bear to the champion of their liber-
ties, concurred with the rest in the design of humbling their primate.
Accordingly the archbishop was condemned as guilty of contempt of
court, and as wanting in the fealty which he had sworn to his sovereign.
His goods and chattels were confiscated ; and that this triumph over
the church might be carried to the utmost, the sentence was ordered to
be pronounced by one of its own members. This was a delicate of-
fice, and occasioned some dispute between the barons and the bishops ;
the former urging that they were laymen ; that the spiritual lords were
of the archbishop's order, and consequently it was their business to de-
liver judgment ; the latter maintained that the sentence not being ec-
clesiastical but secular, belonged rather to the temporal lords. The
king having put an end to the controversy by commanding the bishop
of Winchester to perform the ungracious duty, which he did with great
reluctance, Becket submitted to the decree, and all the prelates, ex-
cept the bishop of London, who wished to commend himself to the
king, became sureties for him. This victory was not enough ; and
Henry, whose violence had more of passion than of justice, or even
policy in it, was determined to pursue his advantage. Next day he de-
manded of Becket the sum of three hundred pounds, which he had le-
vied from the manors of Eye and Berkham, while in his possession.
The archbishop agreed to pay the money rather than allow it to be any
ground of quarrel ; though he stated that more than the sum in ques-
tion had been expended in repairs. In the subsequent meeting the king
demanded five hundred marks which he affirmed he had lent Becket
during the war at Thoulouse ; and another sum to the same amount for
which he alleged he had become his surety to a Jew. In addition to
these two claims, he preferred a third of still greater importance. He
required him to render all the accounts of his administration while
chancellor, and to pay the balance due from the revenues of all the
prelacies, abbacies and baronies which had, during that time, been
subjected to his management. As this demand was totally unexpected,
and required some delay, Becket requested leave to consult his suf-
fragans in an affair of such intricacy. To pay or find security for a
sum which, by the king's estimate, amounted to 44,000 marks, was
impracticable ; and the bishops were extremely at a loss what counsel
to give him. By the advice of the bishop of Winchester, he offered
2,000 marks as a general satisfaction for all demands, but the offer was
rejected. Some prelates exhorted him to resign his see, on condition
of receiving an acquittal, while others were of opinion that he ought to
submit himself entirely to the king's mercy. The bishop of Exeter
thought that since the seas ran high they ought to furl their sails ; and
as the persecution was not general, but levelled at a single person, it
were better to throw their pilot over board than suffer the whole church
of England to perish in the storm. Roger of Worcester would not
venture to give an advice in this case ; for, if he should assert that a
prelate ought to succumb to a king, he would speak against his con-
science ; and, if he said the reverse, he might incur the risk of suspen-
i. 2 i
250 ECCLESIASTICAL SERIES. [SicoNn
sion, or banishment. The bishop of Ely had a stroke of palsy, and
could not attend, which led William of Norwich to wish he had been
screened by the same misfortune, as God, he thought, had sent his
brother of Ely a very happy excuse. Under these difficulties Becket's
first determination was to brave all his enemies ; to trust for protection
to the sacredness of his character, and identify his cause with that of
religion. In performing mass, he took care that the whole service
should pointedly bear upon the recent occurrences. He directed the
introit to the communion to begin with these words, " Princes sat and
spoke against me ;" hoping that, in the passage appointed for the mar-
tyrdom of St Stephen, some resemblance might be traced to his own
sufferings for righteousness' sake. From church he went to court, ar-
rayed in his pontifical robes. As soon as he arrived within the palace-
gate, he took the cross into his own hands, bore it aloft as his protec-
tion, and marched in that attitude into the royal apartments. The
king was astonished at this parade, imagining he and his court were
to be excommunicated, and sent some of the prelates to remonstrate
with him on his audacious behaviour. On being reminded of his
having subscribed the constitutions of Clarendon, and of his present
conduct being in violation of those laws, he replied, that though he had
sworn to observe them " legally, with good faith, and without fraud
or reservation," these words virtually implied a proviso for the rights
of his order, which could never be relinquished by oaths or engage-
ments. If he and they had erred in resigning their ecclesiastical privi-
leges, the best atonement they could make, he said, was to retract their
consent, which, in such a case, could never be obligatory. But the
bishops felt no disposition to recant, and told him, that though they
had hitherto acknowledged and obeyed him as their primate, they
could no longer consider him under that character, since he had so
grossly failed in his duty to the king, and broken the laws he had
sworn to observe. Henry had now succeeded beyond his wishes, and
would probably have pushed matters to the utmost extremity against
Becket, but that prelate gave him no leisure to conduct the prosecu-
tion. The earl of Leicester, in name of the barons, had charged him
with high-treason in breaking the constitutions of Clarendon, and was
preparing to pronounce sentence, when Becket rose and told them
they were laymen, and had no authority to sit in judgment upon their
archbishop ; upon which he walked out of court without waiting to
hear the sentence. His departure called forth reproaches of perjury
and treason from some of the members ; to these he replied, turning
back with a stern look, that but for the restraints of his character, and
his regard for religion, he would have disproved their calumnies and
defended his honour with the sword. 5 In this forlorn situation, deserted
by his brethren, and finding all hopes of accommodation at an end, he
privately withdrew from Northampton, and travelled on foot and in dis-
guise to Lincoln, attended by only two servants. From that city he
reached a small solitary island, where he remained three days ; and
thence, after travelling a week, he arrived at a small town, dependant
on the church of Canterbury, where his extreme weariness obliged him
to stop for some time, lying concealed in a chamber belonging to an
* Genrase, 1389. Diceto, 537.
PRIOD.] THOMAS A BUCKET. 251
ecclesiastic to whom he discovered himself. After a great deal of fa-
tigue, he reached the coast, and getting on board a vessel, he arrived
at Gravelines in Holland. His perils and misfortunes did not end with
his escape. Upon his arrival in Flanders, not being willing to make
himself known, he journeyed on foot through bad roads, and in a very
rainy season, until his strength being quite spent, he fell to the ground
and could walk no farther. His few attendants, with some difficulty,
procured him a very bad horse, without bridle or saddle, upon which
they threw their cloaks. In this plight he was met by some soldiers,
who, having heard of his flight, asked him if he was not the arch-
bishop of Canterbury ? With great presence of mind he replied, " This
is not the equipage of an archbishop ;" upon which he was allowed to
pass. At Gravelines the innkeeper where he lodged having also heard
of his escape, and considering the manners and behaviour of his guest,
imagined this must be the person, and immediately throwing himself
at his feet, entreated his blessing. Becket being satisfied of the man's
sincerity, disclosed himself without reserve, and was entertained by
him with great respect and hospitality. Continuing his journey to St
Omer, he there found an asylum in the monastery of St Britin, the
abbot and the monks receiving him with the greatest affection.
The violence of persecution generally defeats its own purpose, and of-
ten turns the tide of public sympathy in favour of the oppressed. The
English began to overlook the perfidy and ingratitude of Becket, and
abroad he was honoured as a martyr. There were, besides, political
reasons for the countenance and protection he met with on the conti-
nent. Philip, earl of Flanders, and Louis, king of France, jealous of
the rising greatness of Henry, were well pleased to stir up disturbance
in his government. They affected to pity the condition of the exiled
primate. Louis invited him to fix his residence at Soissons, where he
even honoured him with a visit, and offered him a maintenance suit-
able to his dignity. This latter proposal the archbishop declined, and,
soon afterwards, repaired to Sens, where he had an interview with the
pope, into whose hands, at a private audience, he resigned the see of
Canterbury, alleging -that his election was not canonical, but was im-
mediately restored by his holiness, who promised to take care of him
and his interests, and, by a bull, pretended to abrogate the sentence
which the great council of England had passed against him. Mean-
time Henry, in revenge, proceeded to acts of extreme rigour against
the obnoxious prelate. He immediately confiscated the revenues of his
archbishopric ; he sent embassies to the king of France and the earl of
Flanders, to prevail with these princes not to afford Becket shelter
in their dominions. But the attempt entirely failed. Louis was shocked
when he heard the primate styled the late archbishop, and asked who
had deposed him ? "I am a king," said he, " no less than your
master, and yet I have no authority to deprive the meanest clerk in
my dominions." Moreover, he despatched his almoner to Sens, conjur-
ing the pope, if he had any regard for the honour of the Catholic
church, or the friendship and assistance of France, that he would do
his utmost to protect Thomas of Canterbury against the tyrant of
England. Not succeeding at the French court, Henry sent a magni-
ficent embassy to the pope to explain the charges against the archbishop,
and request his holiness to send legates over to England to effect, if
252 ECCLESIASTICAL SERIES. [SECOND
possible, an accommodation. Alexander gave this splendid retinue of
bishops and nobles a cold reception, and allowed them to depart with-
out any satisfactory answer. Henry was exceedingly indignant to find
his policy completely abortive. By a conduct at once arbitrary and
cruel, he banished all the archbishop's relations and domestics to the
number of four hundred, sparing neither age nor sex, for women and
infants, the sick and the infirm, were involved in the proscription, and
driven beyond sea. 6 To aggravate their punishment, these unfortunate
exiles were compelled to take oath that they would immediately join
their patron in Normandy, where he then resided in the abbey of Pon-
tigny. An order at the same time was published in England, forbid-
ding all persons to correspond with Becket, or send him money, or so
much as pray for him in the churches. This rigour, intended to re-
duce the refractory primate sooner to necessity, lost its effect ; the pope
absolved the refugees from their oath, and got them comfortably distri-
buted among the convents in France and Flanders. Becket himself
was enabled to live in great splendour, in the convent of Pontigny,
partly from a pension granted him on the revenues of that abbey, and
partly from considerable remittances made him by the French king.
He even ventured to expostulate with Henry in a letter which he wrote,
reminding him that kings had no authority but what they received from
the church ; urging him as he valued the interests of his own soul, not
to infringe the rights he had sworn at his coronation to defend ; and
threatening him with divine vengeance unless he made instant restitution
of the castles, townships and manors which had been violently taken
from his clerks and tenants. In another epistle to the bishops of Eng-
land, he complained of their not taking part with him against the wicked,
as seeking to please men rather than serve the church of God. He
acquainted them that the pope had annulled the constitutions of Claren-
don, and released them from their obligation to observe those unrighte-
ous laws. In order to heighten the odium against his persecutors, he