from the standpoint of the experience of the best teachers of
the world." ^

/'T AT>,^,TMr Clark University, as opened in 1889, was

CLARtC UNI*

vERsiTv, DE- limited to five departments : Mathematics,
PARTMENT OF Physics, Chcmlstry, Biology and Psychology.

EDUCATION p^^ ^j^g opening of the Chicago University a
few years later the chemistry professors were called in a
body to the new institution, and Clark University has since
confined its strength to the four remaining departments, as
enumerated above. This limited scope of instruction should
be kept in mind when considering the nature of the work
ofifered for the professional training of teachers.

Clark University, properly speaking, is distinctly a Grad-
uate School of somewhat limited scope.' The main object
for which it was established was one of research and investi-
gation — a spirit to which it has ever remained true.

Dr. G. Stanley Hall was called from the chair of psychol-
ogy and pedagogics in Johns Hopkins University to the
Presidency early in 1888, but occupied the year in travel and
study abroad. On his return President Hall assumed the
duties of Professor of Psychology and Education, a position
which he still retains. In 1889, Dr. W. H. Burnham was
appointed Docent in Pedagogy and sent to Europe to study
educational institutions and methods.

* University Catalogue for igoi-02.

' Since the death of the founder of Clark University, Hon. Jonas G. Clark
(19CO), owing to a desire as expressed in his will, an undergraduate department
or college has been established and organized (1902) with Carroll D. Wright as
president.



126 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS \\2^



NATURE OF



The first courses in education were offered
in 1890-91, and consisted of two lectures, each

THE WORK

one hour per week; the one by Dr. Burnham
on " Pedagogical principles, topics in the history of educa-
tion, and present problems in higher and lower education in
this country and in Europe," the other by Dr. Hall upon
" Special institutions and educational systems." From this
time forth Dr. Hall has devoted at least one hour per week
to lectures on special problems of education. These lectures,
like the related ones given by Dr. Hall on psychology,
usually come fresh from the laboratory and are always
stimulating and helpful.

The following year (i 891-2) Dr. Burnham offered a one-
hour lecture course on " School Hygiene and Physical
Education," treating the subject comparatively and from the
standpoint of the hj'giene of the nervous system. This was
followed in turn, by a course on the psychology of reading,
and the methods of teaching reading, mathematics, and
geography, treated historically and comparatively. During
these years the educational seminary was established, a
weekly meeting of students devoted to the study and dis-
cussion of special problems of research in education. Most
of the articles found in the " Pedagogical Seminary," pub-
lished at Clark University, are the results of studies which
have been reported and discussed first in this educational
seminary conducted by Dr. Burnham.

In 1892-93 Dr. Burnham became instructor, and in
1900-01 assistant professor of pedagogy. From the first
he has devoted about two hours per week to lectures on
special topics of education, which are nearly always the
immediate results of investigations that later find currency
in educational publications. Looked at from the standpoint
of the last ten years these lectures have covered a wide
range, but their scope in any one year has been unusu-



127] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT i2f

ally limited. Dr. Hall's work in psychology (philosophy)
is generally planned on a three-year basis, courses re-
peating themselves triennially, but if any such sequence
is arranged for the department of pedagogy the writer
has failed to discover it. A few courses have been re-
peated in the past ten years but without any seeming
regularity. The principal topics that have been considered
during these years are as follows: i. Child Study, Educa-
tional Psychology, School Hygiene; 2. Principles of Edu-
cation, History of Education and Reforms, Methods, devices,
apparatus; 3. Organization of Schools in Dififerent Coun-
tries, Typical Schools and Special Foundations, Motor Edu-
cation, including manual training and physical education,
Moral Education, Ideals. No observation and practice-
teaching is provided, and the work as planned is intended
only for advanced students who are interested in, and capable
of pursuing with profit, original problems of research and
investigation.

The department of pedagogy still continues, as established
in 1893, a sub-department of psychology. In the treatment
of the subject a close relation is maintained between psy-
chology and anthropology on the one hand and pedagogy
on the other, the former furnishing the principles and facts
upon which the latter is based. Pedagogy may be taken as
a minor, but not as a major, for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy. The instruction has been devoted more to the
scientific and theoretical phases of the subject than to the
practical and applied.

" The aim of the department is twofold : first,
to give instruction and training to those who

DEPARTMENT ° °

are preparing to be professors of pedagogy,
superintendents, or teachers in higher institutions ; second,
to make scientific contributions to education. These two
ends are so closely related that the pursuit of one involves
much of the work required for the other also."



128 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TFACHERS \\2%

"Assuming that a student has adequate preparation, three
things are essential for higher pedagogical training; first, a
general knowledge of the organization of education in differ-
ent countries and of literature in the field of education, in-
cluding the history of education, psychology in its relation
to education, and school hygiene; second, actual experience
in teaching, together with observation of good teaching,
and some direct study of educational institutions of dififerent
character and grade; third, some experience in independent
research, involving not only the thorough study of all
authorities upon a subject, and of all work that has been
done in the same field in different countries, but also original
investigation leading to a scientific contribution."

" In this University the study of educational literature, by
lectures and independent reading, and the investigation of
some problem, are usually carried on simultaneously; but
practical experience in teaching must be gained before or
after the University course." " But, while at present the
University has no practice school, as a matter of fact, most
of those who have been members of the educational depart-
ment have had experience in teaching before coming to the
University; and the lack of direct connection with the
schools is in part supplied by visits to educational insti-
tutions."'

One who is unfamiliar with the work at Clark University
may be surprised at the few hours per week devoted to lec-
tures, but the student who is engaged in an investigation of
some new problem, is not desirous of dropping his work
every few hours to listen to lectures on some unrelated topic,
the remembrance of which is made necessary as preparation
for a final examination. Such instruction may be weak when
considered as a formative process, but it certainly furnishes
the best means for individual development. Besides,

*Dr. Burnham, in Clark University Decennial Celebration, 1898-99, pp. 162-3.



1 29] HISTOR Y OF SPECIAL MO VEMEXT i 29

the few lectures that are offered by the instructors are usually
the results of the original investigations of the instructors,
in progress at the time, and cover a vital phase of the topic
or topics under investigation by the students. Such work
would hardly be suitable for undergraduate students, but for
graduates who have naturally passed the formative period it
seems to the writer to be most appropriate.

As early as 1871, there were special courses
for teachers established in connection with the

VERSITY, DE-
PARTMENT OF Lawrence Scientific School. There was no

EDUCATION, examination required for admission to the

SPECIAL ^^ Tcachcrs' Course," which was intended espec-

COURSES FOR . ,, , , , , .

TEACHERS, '^^v 'OJ* tcachcrs of the sciences, or students
looking toward that profession.

Many similar courses have been offered during the sum-
mer sessions for the benefit of teachers who could not attend
during the school year. In fact, the summer courses at
Harvard have always been adapted, in the main, " to the
needs of teachers and to those who intend to be teachers."
The instruction has been for the most part academic, but
some attention has been given to the best methods of teach-
ing the subjects in question.

The catalogue for 1880, p. 147, makes mention of these
courses as follows : " The school also offers facilities to
teachers, and to persons preparing to be teachers, who de-
sire to qualify themselves in the modern methods of teaching
science by observation and experiment. A one-year's course
of study, adapted to this purpose, may be selected from the
elements of Natural History, Chemistry and Physics, includ-
ing any of the following subjects: Physical Geography and
Elementary Geology ; General Chemistry and Quantitative
Analysis; Mineralogy; Physics; Botany; Comparative An-
atomy and Physiology ; Zoology.



130 TRAINING OF SECOADARY TEACHERS [^130

"This Course is flexible and comprehensive; the instruc-
tion is mainly given in the laboratories and museums of the
University, and is of the most practical character, every
student being taught to make experiments and study
specimens."

" Special Courses in Botany, Chemistry and Geology are
given during the vacation to teachers and others who are
unable to attend during term time." '

Special Courses for teachers, not only in the Scientific
School but in the Literary Department as well, have been
an important feature of the university instruction ever since.
To these courses have since been added instruction in psy-
chology and pedagogy. In the catalogue of 1897-98, under
the head ''Science for Teachers," is found the following:
*' This programme is intended for men wiio wish to qualify
themselves to teach science in secondary schools, or to be-
come supervisors of science teaching in elementar}' schools.
It prescribes courses in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry,
Botany, Zoology, Geology and Physical Geography, Psy-
chology, the General Principles of Education, the History of
Education, the Organization and Management of Schools and
Classes, and Methods of teaching Science in Elementary and
Secondary Schools, and offers a voluntary summer course in
Physical Training." "^ This Course covers four years and
leads to " the degree of Bachelor of Science in Science for
Teachers."

In 1891-92 Paul H. Hanus, B. S., was appointed "Assist-
ant Professor in the History and the Art of Teaching," and
the new department of education was established, and still
remains, as a sub-department of philosophy.

During the first year Professor Hanus offered

NATURE OF ^]^j.gg courscs : a two-hour course on " The His-

THE WORK

tory of Teaching and of Educational Theories ;"

* Catalogue for 1880-81, p. 148. * Catalogue for iSgj-gS, p. 418.



J 3 I ] HIS rOR Y OF SPE CIA L MO YEMEN T 131

a one hour course on " The Theory of Teaching, the
psychological basis of methods, Critical examination of
educational doctrines," and a two-hour course on " The Art
of Teaching, school-room practice, management, super-
vision, government and organization of public schools and
academies, including visits to the public schools of Cam-
bridge and vicinity."

The following year the department offered four courses as
follows: I. The history of educational theories and prac-
tices, two hours a week; 2. Introduction to educational
theory, discussion of educational principles, one hour a
week; 3. Organization and management of public schools
and academies, supervision, courses of study, and instruc-
tion, two hours a week; and 4. Pedagogical seminary, aims,
organization, equipment, and methods of secondary educa-
tion. From this time forward these courses have remained
quite constant.

Two years later (1894-95) a fifth course was given by the
department on " Methods of Teaching Sciences in element-
ary and secondary schools," one hour per week. In the
year 1896—97 and following, this course has alternated an-
nually with a course on " Methods of Teaching Latin, Greek,
English, German, French, and History, in Elementary and
Secondary Schools," consisting of about ten exercises on
each subject. The instruction in the courses on Methods
of Teaching is given by Professor Hanus, college professors,
and teachers from nearby secondary schools.

In the establishment of the department of education,
"the corporation wished to make a modest beginning of
systematic instruction in the history and art of teaching."
The instruction is planned for juniors, seniors, and grad-
uates. It does not cover a wide scope, but it is intended
to be thoroughly practical and adapted to the immediate
professional requirements of secondary teachers. It is



I 3 2 TRAINING^ OF SECOND AR V TEA CHERS [132

probable that the department will soon be enlarged and
made co-ordinate with philosophy and other collegiate de-
partments. The popularity of Harvard University is due in
large part to its manifest interest in the professional training
of teachers.

Instead of a mere department of education,

COLUMBIA UNI- U' TT • U U .. T^ I, r W

vERsiTY DE- Columbia University has "leachers College
PARTMENT OF whlch is thc most richly endowed and thor-

EDucATioN oughly equipped School of Education in the
country. The purposes of this paper will permit only the
briefest outline of its history.

In 1889-90, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler was promoted
from the position of Tutor in Philosophy to that of "Adjunct
Professor of Philosophy and Lecturer on the History and
Institutes of Education." During this year under the title
of "Pedagogics" is found the following statement: "Lec-
tures are given to the senior class one hour weekly through-
out the year on the history of educational theories. This
course includes a review and analysis of the most celebrated
writings on education from Plato's Republic to Herbert
Spencer's Education."'

Dr. Butler was a young man of energy and

NATURE OF g^holarly attainments and his scholastic career

THE WORK •' . . T- 11

had been a path of rapid promotion, rellow
from 1882 to 1885 he had become Professor of philosophy,
ethics, and psychology, and lecturer on the history and in-
stitutes of education, 1890, and Dean of the University Fac-
ulty of Philosophy, 1891.=' In 1890-91 he gave two one- hour

1 Columbia University Hand-book of Information, 1889-90, p. 40.

» Nicholas Murray Butler (Educ), A. M., 1883, Ph. D.. 1884; Fellow Col. Coll.,
1882-85; Asst. in Philos., 1885-86; Acting Prof, of Philos., 1886-87; Tutor in
Philos., 1887-89; Adj. Prof, of Philos., 18S9-90; Prof, of Philos., Ethics and
Psychol., and lecturer on History and Institutes of Educ, 1890-; Prest. Teachers'
Coll., N. Y., 1887-91 ; Member Iv. J. State Bd. of Educ, 1888-; Prest. N. J. Coun-



133] ^^^^ '^'^^ ^ ^^' ^^^'- ^^-^^ MOVEMEN T 133

per week lecture courses in education, extending throughout
the year; one on the science of education, the other on the
history of education. The following year he gave a one-hour
course on "Systematic Pedagogics" and devoted two hours
weekly to a Pedagogical Seminary, In 1892-93 but one
course was offered in education ; a one-hour per week lecture
course on " The History of Educational Theories and Institu-
tions." Since this time Dr. Butler has usually offered about
three lecture courses in education annually, each covering
one hour per week : The History of Educational Theories
and Institutions ; Educational Seminary; and Principles of
Education; including Psychology of Childhood, Didactics,
the Ethical and Religious Elements in Education. The latter
is usually considered to be one of Dr. Butler's strongest
courses. Of late years this course represents two hours per
week, the first course mentioned above being omitted.

Having early conceived the idea of a great school of edu-
cation in connection with Columbia University, Dr. Butler
was destined, in his organization and direction of Teachers
College, to do more for practical education and the profess-
ional training of teachers than is indicated from this brief
account of his lectures on education.

^,..^„T,„<. Teachers College may be said to have origi- I

COLLEGE, nated in a philanthropic movement started in ;

COLUMBIA 1880 to promote domestic arts and industrial/

UNIVERSITY 1 .• i.U 1 U • 1 TU "

education among the laboring classes. Ine
aim of the movement was soon enlarged to include the intro-
duction of industrial education — cooking, sewing, manual
training, etc. — into the field of general education, believing
thereby to strengthen education by giving new life and mean-
ing to the subjects already studied.

cil Educ, 1890-91; Dean Univ. Faculty of Philos., 1890-; Prest. Paterson, N. J.,
Commts. of Pub. Instr., 1892-93; Memb. Nat. Council Educa., 1891-; Editor
Educa. Rev., 1890-; Prest. Nat. Teachers' Assn., 1894. — Gen. Cat. Columbia
Univ., 1 754-1 894, p. 147.



1 3 4 TRAINING OF SEC ON DA R V TEA CHERS T j 3 4

In order to successfully carry forward this

ORIGINATED TO ■' ''

SUPPLY THE work, teachers were needed, and their proper
NEED FOR training became a matter of immediate neces-
iNDusTRiAL gj^ Skilled mechanics might prove very in-

TEACHERS , i i • , . .

efincient teachers of children m manual trammg,
especially when the aim was not to make craftsmen, but
rather, broad-minded and intelligent citizens. Neither could
the ordinary teacher be relied upon to carry forward this
work, since he lacked the knowledge and experience neces-
sary to conduct and give meaning to the manual training
laboratory.

In order to make provision for teachers, found necessary
to the success of the movement, the Industrial Education
Association (the name by which the society was now known)
established classes for the training of teachers. Dr. Butler
was appointed President of the Association (1886-91) and
assigned the duty of organizing a training college for teach-
ers, which at first was intended to represent only one phase
of the work, but which later came to absorb the whole in-
terest and attention of the society.

As already noted, Dr. Butler was intent on having a school
of education established at Columbia University. In an
article on "The Beginnings of Teachers College," he says:
"The idea which led to the foundation and development of
Teachers College was suggested by reading the remarkable
discussions of education as a subject of university study which
were contained in the annual reports of President Barnard
for 1881 and 1882."'

The remark of President Barnard that attracted special
attention was as follows : " Education is nowhere treated as
a science, and nowhere is there an attempt to expound its
true philosophy."

Dr, Butler was of the opinion that the time was ripe to

' Columbia University Quarterly, 1899.



135] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 135

begin the systematic exposition of education on a high plane
in the University, but says: " After a full conference with
President Barnard, the opinion was arrived at, chiefly at his
instance, that it would probably be easier to build up a teach-
ers' college outside of the University, and to bring it later
into organic relations with the University, than to undertake
at that time its establishment under the control and at the
expense of the Trustees. By a fortunate circumstance, the
results of which have been almost too happy to attribute
wholly to chance, the Industrial Educational Association
served as the occasion for the realization of the ideal of a
teachers' college on a university basis." '

Teachers College, founded in 1888, began its organization
with the following departments : History and Institutes of
Education; Methods of Instruction; Mechanical Drawing
and Woodworking; Industrial Arts; Domestic Economy;
Kindeigarten Methods, and Natural Science. Tiie school
was backed by a number of wealthy men and women who
were deeply interested in its prosperity, and its growth was
consequently rapid. The college course as first arranged
occupied but two years and led to a teacher's diploma. The
requirements for admission were scarcely equal to those of a
good high school.

At first the chief aim of the Industrial Edu-

CHANGE OF .

IDEAL cation Association was the advancement of
domestic science and industrial training among
the masses, but it was not long before the professional prepar-
ation of teachers for all grades of public school-work became
the overshadowing interest. Industrial training, however,
continued to remain one of the most prominent and influ-
ential features of the instruction.

A most fortunate incident for the future of the College
occurred in 1892 when the society found it necessary to en-

* Columbia University Quartfrly, 1899.



1^6 TRAIXING Of SECONDARY TEACHERS [135

large its quarters. The committee appointed to look up a
site selected twenty lots (since increased to thirty one) at
Morningside Heights, one of the most beautiful and health-
ful parts of New York city. The money for the land was
obtained through Mr. George W. Vanderbilt, who purchased
the property at $100,000 cash and donated it to Teachers
College. Two days later it became known that the old
Bloomingdale property, which lies just across 120th street
to the south had been purchased for the new site of Colum-
bia University; so without anticipating it, Teachers College
was to come under the immediate shadow of a great uni-
versity.

In its enlarged quarters the school was able to greatly
strengthen its curricula and to increase its requirements both
for entrance and for graduation.

In 1 893-94 Teachers College became afifiliated with Colum-
bia University, certain courses of the former being "accepted
by Columbia as counting toward the Columbia College de-
grees." '

Since 1898 Teachers College has become incorporated as
a real part of Columbia University, exchanging its President
for a Dean but retaining its separate Board of Trustees. It
is now in fact the "professional school of Columbia Univer-
sity for the study of education and the training of teachers."
The Teachers College of Columbia University has thus be-
come a great school of education which, besides its four
years of undergraduate academic courses, and its one to
three years of graduate professional courses, " maintains
two schools of observation and practice ; one, the Horace
Mann School, the other known as the Experimental School.
The Horace Mann School comprises three departments — a
kindergarten for children of three to six years of age, an

' Historical Sketch of Teachers College, by ex-Pres. W. L. Hervey, Teachtrs
College Record, i, 33.



137] ^^'^ "^'^^ ^ ^^ SPECIAL MO VEMENT 1 3 7

elementary school of eight grades, and a high school of four
grades. The Experimental School consists of a kindergar-
ten, elementary school and special classes in sewing, cooking
and manual training. Each department of the Horace Mann
School is in charge of a principal, who ranks with directors
of departments in the College. The Experimental School
is under the immediate supervision of the College Professor
of the Theory and Practice of Teaching. Both schools are
under the general direction of a Superintendent of Schools,
who is also the College Professor of School Administration."'
The Horace Mann School, which maintains all grades from
the kindergarten to the college, is a pay school, the other is
free. These schools furnish the professional laboratory of
Teachers College.

The aim of the School is thus set forth in the

AIM OF TEACH- i. 1 j .. T^U x T" U

current calendar: " Ihe purpose of leachers

ERS COLLEGE _ ^ f

College is to afford opportunity, both theoret-
ical and practical, for the training of teachers of both sexes
for kindergartens, elementary and secondary schools, of
principals, supervisors and superintendents of schools, and
of specialists in various branches of school work, including
normal schools and colleges." As at present conducted it
impresses one as an unusually high grade normal. It is a
school of instruction and of methods rather than one of re-