He observed that if the eyes of young, newly-born rats are re-
moved, death always ensues when the experiment attains the fourth
generation, doubtless, says he, through some impairment of the optic
lobes. Cf. his Essais cf Experience sur la Transmission hereditaire de
certaines Lesions chirurgicales ; Relations trophiqnes entre les Yetix tt
les Lobes optiques. Comptes Rendus Soc. de Biologic, 1870.
2 Aira, Bull. Soc. Anthropelogie, 1886,
>56 EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION LECT.
the same or a different form. And finally comes that
much-discussed question of the heredity of muti-
lations, negatively settled by Weismann, but which
certainly requires much new investigation. On
hybridism, sexuality, and many other points, useful
facts will be discovered ; in fact, as has been said,
we cannot exactly foresee the subjects which will
naturally offer themselves to our investigation.
But there is enough to be done, even if experiment
were to suggest nothing new, and the field which is
opened to experiment, in the lines briefly indicated
above, in the line of the investigation of organic
evolution in its general sense, and in its details, is
simply unlimited.
All these experiments can be made on any animals
and plants, and in any country. What is required
for their execution is an institution of some sort
specially devoted to this line of investigation. It
appears to me that this institution should comprise
the following essential elements : rather extensive
grounds, a farm with men experienced in breeding,
agriculture, and horticulture, some greenhouses, and
a laboratory with the common appliances of che-
mistry, physiology, and histology. Of course this
must be located in the country. It is very important
to have experienced farm-hands, and a good chemist
and histologist are necessary in the staff of the insti-
v A LONG TIME REQUIRED. 257
tution. As to the general management, it seems
advisable to have a director with a board of com-
petent men, whose function would be to decide, after
careful investigation and exchange of views, what are
the fundamental experiments to be performed. These
experiments, when once decided upon, should be pur-
sued during a long period of years, and nothing
should be altered in their execution, unless con-
sidered advisable by the board, or unless the
experiment should be found useless or devoid of
chances of success. The main thing should be to
provide for the duration of this experiment, whether
the originators were living or dead, and to follow it
out for a long time. Time is an indispensable ele-
ment in such investigations, and experiments of this
sort will surely exceed the normal duration of human
lifetime. But, as old Pierre Belon writes in his
Remontrances sur le Defaut de Labour et Culture des
Plantes, 1558 : " II ne se fault pas excuser sur la lon-
gueur du temps pourentreprendrechoses seantesau bien
public." Into the details of the work of the chemists,
histologists, or physiologists, it is useless to enter ; the
mere enumeration of the varied facts which have been
quoted shows that their services are of the utmost
usefulness, and are quite necessary for the investiga-
tion of the results. Any number of experiments of
minor importance may be carried
UNIVERSITY
VV OF J
258 EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION LECT.
time, and surely the fact that they will be performed
under good conditions, in a laboratory specially pre-
pared for such investigations, will contribute greatly
to the final success. The co-operation of many out-
siders might be of great use. Young men might
spend some time some three, four, or five years, or
more in attending specially to some of the experi-
ments in course of execution, in the investigation of
some special points. Many friends of science could
also do good work and help greatly by agreeing, for
instance, to cultivate in various localities the same
species of plant, or to co-operate in breeding special
varieties of animals and reporting the results. In
fact, all natural history societies, all laboratories, and
all individuals could undertake a share of work,
and among the individuals, naturalists, horticulturists,
breeders, and pisciculturists would occupy a pro-
minent part. The institution for the experimental
investigation of evolution would thus be the head-
quarters for all that concerns evolution, and its in-
fluence would make itself felt in all departments of
natural history, and thus create a strong current in
the line which, sooner or later, must be opened.
I do not entertain the slightest doubt as to the fact
that it will be opened. The thing must be done. It
is a matter of money as usual. But in civilized
countries individuals or corporations are occasionally
v EXPERIMENTAL STUDY INDISPENSABLE 259
met who understand that mankind's glory lies not
entirely in the invention of instruments of war and
death, and that there are aims in life higher than mere
money-making or enjoyment. There are two main
aims in life the benefiting of mankind, which may
be performed in a thousand manners, and the pursuit
of truth. Much money has already been given to-
wards the accomplishment of these two purposes, and
this allows me to hope that some charitable and en-
lightened persons may be found who will be able and
willing to help towards the experimental study of
evolution.
The matter is of sufficient importance when we
consider that, in fact, nothing less is proposed than
an application of experiment to the solution of one
of the highest problems of science, and the one in
which thinking mankind is most interested.
POSTSCRIPT. Since the above lectures were de-
livered, and even in type, I have had the pleasure
of learning that Dr. Romanes has circulated an
appeal for an experimental institute essentially on
the lines above suggested, which he wishes to see
established in connection with the University of
Oxford. There is also a prospect that the Granton
Marine Station at Edinburgh may be more fully
adapted to some department of this line of research.
S 2
INDEX
A.
Abratnisversicolor, see Stilbe
Aconituat napellits, 142
Acquired characters, 163 ; Weismann
on, 221 seg., 225
Actinia- mescinbryantheiiinui, trans-
ferred to fresh water 187, 188
Actinia plumosa under high pressures,
192
sEqttorea Forskalii, 106
Ailanthiis glandulosa, variation in
sexuality, 109
AIRA, on six-digited tribe of Arabia,
255
Albumen, not identical in all eggs, 66
Alytes, 112
Amblystoma, 112
Amphibians, neotenia among, 110-112 ;
evolution of circulatory apparatus,
Amphicyon, very variable, 150
Amphioxns, gill-slits, 32
Ancylns^ rupicola and thennalis,
varieties of A. simplex ', 93; living
in salt water, 185
Animals, domestication of, 156 ; depar-
ture from wild type, 159 ; brain of
wild and domestic, 166 ; marine
animals in fresh water, 186
Anodonta, living in salt water, 185
Anomalies, muscular, 37; and heredity,
255
Anteater, osteological variability, 104
Antelopes, domesticated, 157
Anthea ccmis, transferred to fresh
water, 187, 188
Anthrax, 124
Aortic arches, 33
APCHIER UE PRUNS, on the influence
of environment on colour, 54
Apples, varieties of, 102
A rchtzopteryx lithographica, 26
Arctia, colour-variation in genus, 51
ARISTOTLE, on differences in animals
from Egypt and Greece, 201
Artemia, salina and milhattsenii,
relationship, 217
Artificial soils, 198
Aspergillnsniger, killed by r^J^th
of nitrate of silver, 182
Aspidistra elatior variegata, 59
Atmospheric pressure, 192
Atractylis genimifera.) 142
A ttacus Pernyi, 195
AUBERT, on caffein, 133
AUDOUIN, on colour-variation, 51
Aurelia aurita, loss of weight through
inanition, 78
AUTENRIETH, on sexuality, 108
Axolotls, 112
B.
Bacillus anthracis, physiological
variability, 127, 223
BACON, on experimental evolution, 43
Balcenidte, 104
BALASCHEWA, on growth, 200
BARFURTH, on sterility, 220
BATALIN (A.), on the influence of com-
mon salt on Salicornta, 212
BATESON, on variation in Cardhim
ednle, 94
BAUDIN, onPisidiujtipnlchelluin and
cinerennt, 94
BAUHIN (G.)i 95
BEAUREGARD, see POUCHET
Beech-marten, formerly domesticated,
156
Bees, changes in colour under change
of environments, 53 ; sex, 107
Begonia Schmidtii, sudden variation,
I 5 2
BEHRENS, on the influence of currents
on aquatic plants, 207
BELON (PIERRE), on time required for
experiments in cultivation and
domestication, 257
BERNARDI, on sexuality, 108
Beroe ovata, loss of weight during
inanition, 78
262
INDEX
BERT (P.)i 9 n the physiological limit
to dimensional variations, 76 ; on
adaptation to salinity, 190 ; on
heredity of mutilations, 255
BESSEY (C. A.), on differences of the
flower in different varieties of apples,
102
BEUDANT (F. S.), on transferring
marine forms to fresh water, and
fresh-water forms to sea water, 185
Bidens cernua, variation, 72
Blood, chemical differences according
to sexes, 122
Bones, chemical differences between
man and woman, 121
BONNIER (G.) and FLAHAULT, on the
influence of altitudes on colour, 55;
on the influence of altitudes on form,
96
BOKY DE SAINT VINCENT, 19
BOUDIER, on relation between form and
environment, 95
BOUKGUIGNAT, on possible connection
between electrical phenomena and
left-handed shells, 204
Brain, physiological conditions may be
artificially hastened or retarded, 146
Branchipiis ferox, variations accord-
ing to the mode of life, 216
Brassica olcracea, varieties derived
from it, 177 ; B. orientalis, experi-
ments on selection, 236
BKENNAN (G. A.), on variation in an
individual plant of Tradescantia
I'irginica, 101
BRICK (C.)> on physiology of sea-shore
plants, 212
BRONN, on heredity of mutilations, 255
BROT, on abnormal Lymncea in ponds
containing many Hydras, 204
Brucine, influence on common crab,
120
Buccinnm transferred to fresh water,
1 86
BUFFON, evolutionary and anti-evolu-
tionary views, 17, 18 ; on man's power
over nature, 43 ; tendency towards
degeneracy, 150
Btijo, 112
Brilitmis decollatiis, 74
C.
Calendula arvensis, 75
Caltha palustris, 142
CAMERANO, on neotenia, no
Campanula trachelium, 54 ; C.
rotnndifolia, 55
CAMULOGEN, 220
CANDOLLE (DE), on the origin of culti-
vated plants, 173 ; on the varieties of
Brassica oleracea, 177 ; on light and
temperature, 219
Capparis spinosa devoid of spines, 92
Carbonic acid, its disappearance would
destroy all life, 181
Cardium edule, 94
Carcinus mcenas, 120 ; transferred to
fresh water, 188
Carex ampullacea, difference in aerial
and aquatic leaves, 208
CARRIERS (E. A.), on variegation, 58 ;
on .sudden variegation, 59 ; on dis-
similarly coloured grapes in the
same bunch, 60 ; on variation in the
leaves of the ivy, 98 ; on variation
of sexuality in Ailanthus, 109 ; on
sudden variation, 153
CARRiEREand ANDRE, on variegation,
59 ; on dissimilarly coloured flowers
on the same plant, 60
Carrot, experiments in selection on, 237
Cattle, different flavour and chemical
characters of flesh according to
mode of feeding, 66 ; insular smaller
than continental, 73 ; sudden appear-
ance of hornless, 153 ; Niata breeds,
153 ; Franqueiros breed, 154 ; weight
increased by domestication, 166 ",
length of gestation varies according
to breeds, 167 ; hornless, 239
Cemiostoma caffeoium, 136
Cerithiuin transferred to fresh water,
1 86
Cerviis corsicanus a descendant of C.
elaphus, 73
CHABRY, see POUCHET
Chamcerops hnmilis no
CHAUVEAU (A.), on the greater im-
munity of Algerian sheep towards
anthrax, 124 ; on physiological
transmutation 127, 221
CHAUVIN (MARIE DE), on neotenia, 112
Chemical differences between the bony
structures of different breeds of
sheep, 116; in the percentage of
principal components of the wool of
various breeds of sheep, 117 ; in the
flesh of salmon in normal condition
and after spawning, 117 ; between
different species of the same genus,
118 ; between plants of same species
poorly or richly fed, 118 ; between
bones of man and woman, 114,
121 ; between their blood, 122
Chlorophyll, not identical in all plants,
65
CHOSSAT, on inanition, 78
CHRISTISON (SiR ROB.), on chemical
analyses of salmon betore and afte
spawning, 117
Cicuta. 135
Circulation of matter, 2
Circulatory system, arguments for
evolution, 32
Cirs27i)n anglicwn, form of C. Itilbo-
$11111) 219
INDEX
263
Civilization and domestication, 169
CLARK (J. A.), on colour-variation in
Smerinthus, 51
CLAUS, on variation in ^Eqnorea
,
forskalea, 106
lematis vitalba, 142
CLESSIN (S.)> on the influence of the
movement of water on the form of
molluscs, 207
Climate, influence on colour, 69 ; on
sexuality, 109
Coffea arabica killed by a species of
insects which does not attack C-
liberica, 136
Colchicin, influence of germinating
seeds, 137
Colchiciiin aiitnmnale, 142
Colzas phyllodoce, vitality, 120
Colour, variability, 48 ; in animals,
50 ; food and, 57 ', colour of envi-
ronments, its influence, 58 ; and
hybridation, 64 ; and vigour, 68, 69 ;
and climate, 69
Colour-variation, Linnaeus on, 48 ;
accompanied by other sorts of varia-
tion, 49 ; in fox, 50 ; butterflies, 50 ;
in insects generally, 51 ; cray-fish, 52 ;
worms, 52 ; seasonal, 52 ; chemical
variation underlying colour-varia-
tion, 61 ; influence of light and
oxygen, 220 ; and fecundity, 68
COLUMELLA, 22O
Conium macnlatnm, 140
CONTA (BASILE), on origin of present
forms of life, 9
CONTEJEAN (CM.), on physiological
differences between differently
coloured frogs, 134 ; on differences
in the digestive tract between frog
and toad, 134, 135
Copper (sulphate of), influence on
germination, 137
Coriander, species, 95
CORNEVIN, on modes of variation in
domestic animals, 47 ; on proportion
of sexes in different species of
animals, 108 ; on toxic foods, 135,
136 ; on conditions of domestication,
162 ; on differences in skull-capacity
between wild and domestic forms,
166 ; on differences in length of
gestation according to breeds of
cattle, 167; on differences of
variability among domestic animals,
170 ; on a variety of sheep with
four udders, 239 ; on crossing and
fertility, 243 ; on predominant
heredity, 245 ; forms of heredity, 247
CORNU, on parasitism and sexuality,
108
COSTANTIN, on the influence of aerial
and aquatic life on stomata and
leaves, 209
Cray-fish, colour-variation, 51
Creation Theory, 7
four views, 22
what it implies, 39
Crossing between orange and lemon,
62 ; proposed method of experiments,
242 seq., 249
Cultivation of plants, its modifying
influence, 171 ; should be extended
to new forms, 172 ; origin of culti-
vated plants, 173
CUNNINGHAM, on muscular variability,
105
CuRTiss(A. H.), on dimensional varia-
tions, 72
CUVIER, 19 ; revolutions of the earth, 23
Cyclamen europce-itm, 141
D.
DALIBARD, on variations in the scent
of flowers, 102
DALL (W. H.), on sudden variation,
*5i
DALLINGER, on adaptation, 221
DAMMER (UDO), on teratology, 100
Daphnia degenerata, magna, and
pulex, relationship, 217
Daphnia rectirostris, variations ac-
cording to mode of life, 213
DARESTE(C.)I on experimental terato-
geny, 193^^.. 228, 220 ; on crossing,
246
DARWIN (C.), Origin of Species, 6
Datura stramonhim crossed with D.
Icevis, 62
DECAISNE, on variability in fruit trees,
99
DELAUNAY (G.), on comparative
biology, 123
DELBCEUF, " tendency to better-
ment," 151
DETMER, on the shoots of Thuja
occidentalis, 222
Digestive system, variation, 106 ;
physiological differences between
frog and toad, 134, 135
Dimensional variation, 70 ; in man
and animals, 70 ; in plants, 72 ; in
insular animals and plants, 73 ;
physiological limit, 76
Diphtheria, 124
Disease, racial immunity from 123
Domestic animals, number very small,
157 ; wild forms of, 158, 159 ; varia-
bility is variable, 170
Domestication, 156 ; ought to be ex-
tended to new forms, 160 ; conditions
of, 162 ; as a means of transmuta-
tion, 164 ; and civilization, 169
Doris tiibercnlata transferred to fresh
water, 188
Doryphora decemlineata, 120
Down of plants more abundant in dry
stations, 91
264
INDEX
Dromia -vnlgaris transferred to fresh
water, 188
DUBALEN, on molluscs living in warm
waters, 205
DUGES, on colour-variation, 51
DUNCAN (D.), on toxic foods, 135
DURET (CLAUDE), quaint evolutionary
notions, 14
Dwarf plants, 71 ; elephants, 73 ; dogs,
73 ; rabbits, 74
Dwarfing of Japanese plants, 71 ; and
sterility, 75 ; of Lymntea, and in-
fluence on sexuality, 200
Echium, physiological differences ac-
cording to climate, 115
EDMONSTONE (DR.), on differences in
the structure of the stomach of
Larus according to food, 105
Eels, experiments en the influence of
salt, 190
Elephants, small in Malta, 73
Elodea, 81, 82
Embryology : arguments for evolution,
29 ; ontogeny and phylogeny, 30 ;
arguments from the circulatory
apparatus, 32 ; from the nervous
system, 35 ; from teratology and mal-
formations, 36
Environment, its modifying influence
on organisms, 179 ; a very slight
change may be fatal, 181 ; and de-
velopment, 197 ; and physiology,
201 ; and deformation, 207 ; and
leaf forms, 209; and plant life, 219;
factor in evolution, 229 ; proposed
experiments, 233
Eqnns Prjevalskii, 159
Erica vulgaris, 54
Eiigeron alpinns, 55
Eiionymiis, variegated, 58 ; E. siil-
furea, 59 ; E. ra.dica.ns variegata,
59
Euphorbia, 140
Evolution theory stated, n, 12
historical sketch, 13
proofs : palseontological, 29
embryological, 29
pathological, 36 ; morphological,
38
mental, 41 ; proof wanted, 42
and experiment (Bacon on), 43
factors of, 229
first, change of environment, 233
second, use and disuse, 235
third, selection, 236
Evolution, experimental, aims of, 251
need of, 45
based on three groups of fucts, 46
first, variations in structure, 47
second, variations in colour, 48
third, variations in dimensions, 70
first group of facts supporting it,
46
second group of facts supporting
it, 156
third group of facts supporting it,
170
fourth group of facts supporting
it, 179
Experiment and observation, 180
Experiments proposed on environment,
233 A j-
on use and disuse, 235
on selection, 236
on crossing, 243
physiological, 250
FABREJOU, on the influence of environ-
ment on plants, 96
FAIVRK, on variability, 98
FALLOU (J ), on experimental produc-
tion of abnormalities among butter-
flies, 195
Fertility influenced by external condi-
tions, 221
FILHOL (H.), on variability in palaxm-
tological faunas, 150
FISCH, on proportion of both sexes in
plants, 107
FISCHER, on molluscs living in warm
waters, 205
FLAHAL'LT, See BONNIER ', On the
colour of plants grown from the same
set of seeds under different condi-
tions, 56
Flesh, chemical variations according
to condition of the animal, 117
Flesh, differences in taste and chemis-
try according to the food of the
animal, 66
Flower, variability, 100
FOLIN (MARQUIS DE), on the irregu-
larity of some pond snails, 93
Food and colour, 57 ; and length of
wool, 90 ; and structure of the
stomach, 105 ; and sexuality, 107,
109 ; and chemical composition, 118
Foraminifera, 27
FORCHAMMER, on chemical differences
between different species of the same
genus, 118
Form-variation, 93 ; among molluscs,
93
FOURNIER (G.), on variation among
Cruciferae, 98
Fox, colour- variation. 53
Fresh water, generally but not always
fatal to marine animals, 185
Fruit, variations, 99
Fiicns, chemical differences between
different species, 118
INDEX
265
G.
Galium cruciatum, 55
Callus bankiva, 158
GAUDKY(A.), on palarontological argu-
ments for evolution, 28 ; on varia-
bility among molluscs, 169
GAUTIER (ARMAND), on chemical
variation accompanying colour-
variation in grapes, 61
Gentians, colour-variation, 54
GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE, on en-
vironment, 19; on experimental
transformism, 43, 44 ', on dimensional
variation, 74 ; on civilization and
domestication, 169
Geological record, imperfection, 25
Geranium batrachioides, 54 ; G. sylva-
ticum, 55
GERARD, on colour-variation in bees,
53 ; on colour-variation in plants, 53
GIARD (A.), on parasitism and sexu-
ality, 108 ; on parasitary castration,
220
Gill-arches, 32
Glanders, 124
GODRON, on seasonal colour-variation,
52 ; on variation in the form of
Ranunculus leaves, according to
environment, 97 ; on Ranunculus,
97
GOODALE (G. L.), on plants suitable
for cultivation, 172
Grape-vines from the Rhine valley
yield Madeira wine in Madeira, 219
Grapes, differently coloured in the
same bunch, 60', colour-variation
and chemical variation, 63
Grapsus transferred to fresh water, 188
GRATACAP, on differences of resistance
of different insects to various in-
jurious processes, 120
GRAY (AsA), on cultivation and its
results, 251
GRUBER (W.), on muscular variability,
105
H.
HAECKEL (E.), on evolution, 31
Haliotis transferred to fresh water,
186
HARNACK and MEYER, on the in-
fluence of pilocarpin on green and
brown frog, 132
Heat, influence on germinating seeds,
137 ; on different bacteria, 183 :
molluscs living in warm water, 205,
206
Helianthus annuus, dwarfed, 75
Helicidce, dimensional variations, 74
Hellebore, 135
Hemp, proportion of sexes, 107 ; muti-
lated, 108
Heredity, 225 ; predominant, 245, 247;
bilateral, 247 ; direct and crossed,
eq^lal and unequal, 247 ; atavistic,
247 ; through influence, 248 ; homo-
chronous, 248 ; rein-verted, 249 ;
homotopic, 249 ; heterotopic, 249 ;
in general, 255 ; of mutilations, or
abnormalities, 255
HERMBSTAEDT, on the influence of
food on chemical composition of
plants, 118
HKRTWIG (R. and O.), on segmenta-
tion, 197
HEUSINGER, on colour- variation, 67-69
HILGENDORF and HYATT, on the
Planorbis of Steinheim, 27
Hippuris -vulgaris, differences in
aquatic and aerial leaves, 209
HOFMANN, on sexuality, 108
HOLMGREN, on structure of the
stomach and its variations accord-
ing to food, 105
Holothuria cucumaria transferred to
fresh water, 188
HOOKER (SiR JOSEPH), on Tasmanian
species suitable for cultivation, 172
Horse, colour and fecundity, 68 ; do-
mestic forms, 165
HULST, on colour-variation among
Arctias, 51
HUNTER (JOHN), on visceral varia-
bility in sea-gulls, 104
HUXLEY (Tn. H.), three hypotheses
concerning the present world, 7 ; on
evolution, n
HYATT, see HILGENDORF ; on varia-
bility of Planorbis, 149
Hybrids, colour in, 64 ; between grape-
vines, 246 ; new experiments must
be performed, 249
Hydra, possible influence on Lym-
na?a, 204
Hyla, 112
Idiosyncrasy, 125
Immunity, comparative, to different
diseases among different species, 124
Inanition, loss of weight in inverte-
brates, 77
Insular animals smaller than conti-
nental, 73
Integumentary variation, 89 ; in poul-
try, 89 ; in sheep, 89 ; in the length of
the wool, 89 ; in the amount of hairy
covering among plants, 91 ; in the
spines of plants, 92
IRVINE and WOODHEAD, on the pro-
duction of lime by animals, 202
1 'satis tinctoria, 91
Isoetes lacustris, variability, 10
266
INDEX
J-
Jackal, formerly tamed, 157
Jasione montana, 91
JOHANNSEN, on caffein, 133
JONES (RUPKRT), on Foraminifera, 28
Juncussupinus, variation, 98
Juniperus, dwarfed, 71
Jussicea grandijlora, leaf-variatio n,
98
JUSSIEU (DE), on Ulexnanus
KIPLING (LOCKWOOD), on domestic
animals in India, 161
KIKCHEK, on genesis of animal forms,
I 4
KRAUS, on growth of fruits during day-
time and night, 199
KROCKER, on the amount of wool
yielded according to the food of
sheep, 91
L.
Laburnum, 140
LACORDAIRE, on colour variation, 51
Lactuca perennis, 236
Lamarckism and Darwinism, 230, 231
LAMARCK'S theory of transmutation,
19 ; on Kamtnculns hederacens
and aquatilis, 97
Lamiumpurpureum, 54
LANGUET DE SIVRY, on environment
.and artificial selection, 203
Larus argentatus, variation, 105
Lams tridactylus, variation, 104
Latent life, 193
LAUDER BRUNTON and CASH, on the
action of theine and caffeine, 132
LAUTENBACH, on the physiological
action of heat on Rana temporaria
and esculenta, 134
Leaves, variation, 97 ; toxicity, 142 ;
variability according to mode of life,
208, 209-212
LEBAS, on the comparison of varie-
gated and non-variegated plants, 59
LE CONTE, factors of evolution, 229
Leeches, colour-variation, 52
LEMAIRE (C.)j on dimensional varia-
tions of hemp, 72
Lepidiiim sativum, 138 ; influence of
fresh and sea water on starch-pro-
duction, 212
LESAGE (P.), on the influence of sea-
shore life on plants, 209 ; influence