ment of this passage in the past, we must name first the class
that suppose in it the immediate time of the apostle. As in
Matth. xxiv. Christ himself connects his coming with the insurrec-
tion of the Jews against the Komans, and with the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Eomans which followed it, so too they refer Paul's
representation here to those events. Accordingly, the d-rroaTaoia is
said to denote the insurrection of the Jews, or, according to Ham-
mond, the falling away of the Gnostics. The man of sin is said to
be Simon Magus, as the father of heresy, or, according to Wetstein,
the Emperor Titus and the gens Flavia along with him, because
Titus, at the destruction of Jerusalem, according to Josephus
(B. J. VI. 2), sacrificed in the Temple. Grotius, on the other
hand, declared the Emperor Caligula the man of sin ; others Nero,
because he first persecuted the Christians. Kern too belongs to the
interpreters who refer this passage to past events, and therefore at-
tribute to it no further prophetic meaning. This divine thinks it
necessary to transfer the description of the anticipated Antichrist
to the time after Nero's death, when the report was spread that that
Emperor was not dead, and would come again (Tac. Hist. ii. 8, Suet.
Nero c. 57), out of which the notion was developed among the
Christians that Nero would return as Antichrist. (Lactantius de
mort. persec. c. 2, August, de civ. Dei xx. 19.) On account of this
circumstance, then, Kern also transfers, as already remarked in the
Introduction to these epistles, the composition of the second Epistle
to the Thessalonians to a period after Nero, and therefore declares
it spurious. But we find nothing in the description of Antichrist,
as given here by Paul, which would lead to the inference that
he intends by it precisely Nero, and that the notion of Nero's re-
turn after death is supposed. This description contains such
traits alone as could be cited even before Nero's time, from the
picture of Antichrist already sketched by Daniel : viz., insolent
transgression of the law, and scornful presumption towards the
gods, to, or even above whose level he exalts himself. No doubt
* See the special excursus on this passage in the latest Commentaries, particularly in
Koppe, Pelt, and Schott.
824 SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 7.
these traits are in part found in Nero, and that madman is also,
doubtless, to be considered as a type of Antichrist, as well as An-
tiochus Epiphanes ; but this holds good of many others also. The
prophecy cannot be looked on as fulfilled in him in its fulness, be-
cause the facts foretold by Paul have not met with their accom-
plishment in his person.
Equally discrepant are the views as to the KOTE^WV. Either
Christ himself, or the Divine will, or the Apostle Paul and his
supplication, or the Christians and the supplicating Christian
church in general, have been interpreted as the beneficent power
which keeps off the coming of Antichrist. But the most usual
view as to the /ca-n^wv, which the Fathers especially defend, was
that it denoted the Roman Empire (TO KOTC^OV) and the Emperor
as its representative (6 /care^wv). This supposition extended itself
even through the middle ages and modem times ; for Charlemagne
was considered as the restorer of the Roman Empire, and, in con-
formity with the prophecy of Daniel (Dan. ii. 40, seq.) of. the
four universal monarchies, the Roman Empire was considered as
the fourth monarchy, therefore as the hip, legs, and feet, of the
image that is described in the passage cited. The legs were referred
to the division into the eastern and western Roman Empires, the
toes to the later kingdoms of Christian-German Europe. So inter-
preted the later interpreters of Revelation, Newton, Bengel, and
Stilling. As these recognized at the same time in Popery the Anti-
christian power, they might think they had the two chief powers
continually before them ; in the Pope and the Emperor, Antichrist
and he that kept him off were plainly symbolized to them. By
another turn of this view one might think himself justified, on
Napoleon's appearing, in considering him as Antichrist, in that he
laid a plan for a universal monarchy. It is true, Napoleon entered
into a directly hostile opposition to Popery and the hierarchy, but
through his dissolving the German empire in 1806 as the fourth
universal monarchy of Daniel, he was looked on by many as he
who removed the /tart^cov. But, as even after the dissolution of
the German Empire Christ's advent has not happened, the whole
view of the Roman Empire as the fourth monarchy is plainly
endangered. The assumption of the continuance of the fourth
universal monarchy, after the dissolution of the German Empire
in 1806, in the states of the Rhenish Confederation, or of the
German Confederation subsisting since 1815, is too doubtful to
claim immediate adhesion. In order to make it good, it becomes
necessary to assert that the German, i. e., Roman, Empire would
be restored again at some time, precisely as it was restored again
by Charlemagne in 800, after the destruction of the western
Roman Empire in 476, a view to which we shall subsequently re-
SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 7. 325
turn. The referring Antichrist to the Pope, or rather to Popery, is
found as early as the middle ages among those individuals and par-
ties who came out in opposition to the hierarchy ; but it is espe-
cially since the Reformation that this view has "been the prevailing
one among the Protestants, whereas the Catholics designated Mo-
hammed as Antichrist in earlier times, but afterwards Luther
and his labours by way of retaliation. The interpretation of Anti-
christ of the Papacy has even passed into the confession of faith
of our church. (See the articles of Smalcalde, art. vi., p. 314, edit.
Rechenberg.)
If we, after this, turn to the critical examination of these various
opinions upon Antichrist and upon that which holds him in check,
we must by all means lay it down as an axiom that every interpre-
tation is false which admits the apostle's representation to be ex-
hausted in any phenomenon of the past. For, according to his
express declaration, Christ's coming, and with it the resurrection of
the faithful and the kingdom of God, are immediately to follow on
the coming of the falling away and of Antichrist. As hitherto
none of these has happened, the coming of Antichrist also can only
be considered as future. But it by no means ft- Hows from this that
the above-cited references to past historical points are strictly false ;
they must merely not be conceived as exhausting the prophecy of
Paul, but as real types of the last great catastrophe. Thus it is, in
particular, to be decidedly acknowledged that the revolt of the Jews
from the Romans, and the fearful judgment of God, the destruction
of Jerusalem, with which the abolition of the independence of the
people of God and of the Old Testament dispensation were united,
are to be conceived in this passage as a type of the Antichristian
events, just as in Matth. xxiv. In Paul's spiritual horizon the spe-
cial relations of the remote future could not occur ; he expected, as
we saw at 1 Thess. iv. 15, seq., the advent during his life. It is,
therefore, more than probable that lie too, in conformity with the
guidance of the prophecies of Christ himself (Matth. xxiv.), which
were, no doubt, known to him, in uttering this prophecy had partic-
ularly the impending catastrophe of the destruction of Jerusalem
in his thoughts. This is vouched for not so much by the mention
of the temple of God (for it is extremely improbable that Paul
imagined Antichrist would place himself in the stone Temple upon
Zion, as there was no throne in it, as, besides, no Jew entered it ;
further, this Temple was precisely the one to be destroyed ac-
cording to Christ's prophecy), as by the phrases TO vvv Kare^ov, 6
aprt Kare^wv, for it cannot well be doubted that nothing but the
Roman Empire, or in the masculine form the Emperor, as represent-
ative of it, is primarily denoted by them. By the additions vvv }
dprc } Paul intimates the fact that the overthrow of this iron king-
SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 7.
dom (see Dan. ii. 40, seq.) is imminent, and with this the overthrow
of all order and legality, which through its influence spread them-
selves among the nations. According to this, we must in the in-
terpretation of this passage decidedly disapprove of regarding,
even in a typical sense, one of the Roman Emperors as Antichrist ;
he is rather, not as an individual, in which relation he may have
much that is Antichristian in him, but in his official position, the
icarex^v here. Paul, doubtless, imagined Antichrist as proceed-
ing from the revolted Jews, or rather from apostate Christians (as
it is said also at 1 John ii. 19, % fm&v lt~rfi.0ov, d/U" OVK Ipav |
i)juc5v), but in no case as a Gentile. Since he represents the ut-
most height of sinful development, there must necessarily be also
supposed in him the utmost height of consciousness, which can
be attained only under the influence of Christianity. We do not
in this, then, deny that, e. g., the Emperor Nero, apart from his
official position, conceived purely as a person, might be a type of
Antichrist. This is rather undoubtedly to be assumed, as indeed
Christian antiquity confessedly so considered him, and therefore did
not believe in his death, but expected his coming again (see the in-
terpreters on Rev. xvii. 8, and the passages in Kern, loc. cit., p. 200,
seq.) But this passage presents the Roman Empire and the Em-
perors in another relation, viz., its beneficent aspect, the strict
legality, opposing all revolution and dvopia, of the principle of the
Empire.
Descending further in the history of the world, in like manner it
is decidedly to be acknowledged that in Mohammed and his work of
spiritual devastation in the development of Popery during the mid-
dle ages,* and finally in Napoleon in the present age, single traits of
the Antichristian spirit shew themselves ; but no one can seriously
maintain that Mohammed or Napoleon was Antichrist, not merely
because upon their appearing that did not follow which Scripture
represents as following upon the revealing of Antichrist, viz., the
universal falling away and the setting up of the kingdom of God, but
also for the reason that they possess, it is true, some but not all, of
the traits of Antichrist. But only the combination of the collective
features consummates Antichrist in the same way as the combina-
tion of the collective features of the image of Christ, as the pro-
phets had painted it, in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, makes
him Christ. Again, to establish the view that Popery is Antichrist,
would oblige us previously to give up the doctrine, expressly de-
monstrated as scriptural, of the personality of Antichrist ; he could
in that case be conceived as a spiritual principle only. As, however,
the principle of Popery has prevailed during a whole series of cen-
* See especially the passages collected by Pelt, Comm. in Epist ad Tlicss., p. 201,
seq.
SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 7. 327
turies, it is not to be perceived how its appearing can constitute a
fixed time for the beginning of the kingdom of God, in which sense
Paul here (ver. 3) treats of the revealing of Antichrist. Some
indeed might apprehend the reference to Popery as the principle
out of which the personality of Antichrist was yet to shape it-
self, so that some Pope or other would in the end present himself
as the bodily Antichrist ; yet we are to reflect that this is conceiv-
able only after a preliminary annihilation of the Roman Catholic
church and, with it,' of the Papacy too. For, as both are grounded
on the confession of Christ as the Son of God, Antichrist can ap-
pear in a Pope in no other way than by the removal of this founda-
tion, because from the description in the first Epistle of John the
denial of Christ is an essential feature in his portrait.
We may, accordingly, pronounce as the result of this examina-
tion, that the history of the world certainly presents to us personages
and tendencies, in which significant traits of the picture of Antichrist
are predominant, also groups of events, in which the analogy with
the last catastrophes before the setting up of the kingdom of God
is quite uninistakeable, which holds particularly of the insurrection
of the Jews against the Eomans, as of the destruction of Jerusalem
which directly followed it, and of the French Revolution of 1789 ;
but that neither in these separate occurrences, nor in all taken to-
gether, can the deep meaning of the prophecy in this passage be
looked on as exhausted. The saying (2 Thess. ii. 7) TO ^vor^piov -i/drj
KvepydraL rfjg dvo^ia^ still holds good yet. The demoniac powers,
which we see at work in the history of the world, call forth Anti-
christian formations now in this shape, now in that, and that too in
such a way that an augmentation of evil is visibly to be observed.
This manifests itself especially in the progress of the French Revo-
lution a series of events without example or parallel in the history
of the world which, in fact, presents, on a narrower scale, an accu-
rately corresponding type, especially in its Antichristian spirit, of
the events of the awTeteia TOV altivos. But even after this, the pro-
phecy, as such, still abides. Now it may present no especial diffi-
culty to conceive to ourselves as possible an universal d^ooraoia from
all the fundamentals of religion and morality, as we see before our
eyes how active and manifold are the labours for undermining them,
and how infidelity and superstition strive for dominion over man-
kind. And with just as little difficulty may we conceive that from
the universally disseminated elements of unbelief and wickedness,
which are daily increasing, an individual is being produced, who, as
the centre of all these Satanic tendencies, combines them in himself
in the utmost height and strength, and so, as the fruit of the whole
sinful development in human nature, as the corporeal Antichrist, as
the incarnate son of Satan, steps upon the scene and seeks to hurl
328 SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 7.
the Son of God on high from his throne. But this interpretation
still leaves the Kare^wv ohscure. True, this one feature in the pro-
phecy might be deemed to have no meaning for the future ; that the
added vvv and dpn restrict its reference to the times of the apostles.
To this view, however, I cannot subscribe, partly because it seems
unsuitable to declare so important a feature of the picture fulfilled,
and the others not ; partly because precisely the deferral for cen-
turies of the advent of Antichrist proves the enduring energy of the
element that keeps it oflf. To refer here to the Roman Empire,
as the fourth universal monarchy of Daniel, in its German-Christian
form, we are forbidden by its subsequent dissolution in 1806. And
the notion of a future restoration of it, such as Max von Schenken-
dorf dreamed of, is questionable, on the ground, that the mutter
treated of is not the mere restoration of the name, " Roman Empire,
Roman Emperor," but of the thiny itself. The Emperor of the mid-
dle ages was the representative of all worldly power generally, the
first prince of Christendom. But this relation had already, long be-
fore 1806, entirely changed, and therefore the outward dissolution
of the empire is less important, because it had long since changed
its internal character. And now it is by no means to be perceived
how, under the present state of political relations, the position of the
Emperor in the middle ages can ever be restored. Daniel's fourth
universal monarchy must therefore be understood only of the pre-
ponderance of the Christian world in its Germanico-Roman elements
over the terrestrial sphere, and not of the concentration of this do-
minion in one individual. We might, therefore, refer to the church.
But the KCITKXOV can be scarcely referred to the church and her earthly
or heavenly representatives, because it is matter of course that what
Antichrist wishes to annihilate 1 opposes him, and thereby keeps him
off ; the narixov must be something equally distinct from the church
and Antichrist. Besides, the change of the gender is thus inex-
plicable ; for Paul cannot have set himself up as the representative
of the whole church, and if he meant Christ, we do not see why he
should not openly name him. There remains then only the single
explanation of./care^ov, which understands by it the whole rightly-
ordered political system, in which is involved on the one side the
continual repression of all dTTooraaia and dvojuta, and on the other
the progressive tranquil development of Christianity. Of this sys-
tem the Roman Empire, as the firmest and most regularly-organ-
ized state that history is acquainted with, is the natural type.
This leads us to the conclusion that insurrection against the sub-
sisting (see on Rom. xiii. 1) political arrangement is a principal
lever of the Antichristian power, in order to bring the man of
sin into existence, and indeed at Matth. xxiv. 7 insurrections are
expressly named among the influences which usher in the last times.
SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 8. 329
With the appearance of Antichrist, accordingly, all order equally in
church and state will tumble down, and the Satanic disorder of his
government will alone exercise dominion, until through Christ's
power the Lord's everlasting kingdom of peace shall be raised on the
ruins of his universal monarchy after the last sore fight. Thus tak-
ing the prophecy, we adhere to the conception of the Koman Empire
in its essential spirit, as the regulated politico-religious order of
things in general, which for man's depraved condition is defined as
divine order. By this means, then, it becomes explicable how Rome
can be represented in Revelation, as the depositary of the Autichris-
tian principle without any contradiction of Paul's description in this
passage. For a twofold element is to be distinguished in Rome
and the Roman state even as in Jerusalem and the Jewish people.
First, the Divine calling and destination, and secondly the actual
realization of the same. As Jerusalem was destined for the centre
of the kingdom of God, but was turned into Sodom through its un-
faithfulness (Rev. xi. 8), so also Rome was intended to maintain the
principle of right and order in the world, and it is under this aspect
that Paul here considers it ; but in its outward manifestation it ad-
mitted into itself even Antichristian elements, in that it persecuted
Christ's saints against all right, and in this point of view Rome ap-
pears in Rev. xvii. 3, 9 as the depositary of the Antichristian spirit.
Conceptions apparently so different, and yet both founded on the
essential features of the case, proclaim in the clearest manner that
the apostles, taught by the Holy Ghost, uttered their prophecies with-
out external concert and conference. But that Paul here only points
to the idea of the significance of the state and its relations to the de-
velopment of God's designs in humanity, and does not openly ex-
press it, need be referred to no special cause, since he supposes the
knowledge of it in his first readers (ver. 6). It is the less possible to
suppose any design to express himself mysteriously, as by this rep-
resentation so noble a position was appointed the Roman Empire.
Ver. 8. Paul now, in continuation of his communications as to
the last times, describes Christ's victory over the hostile powers of
Antichrist ; when the dvopog thinks he has attained to all in the
possession of his universal monarchy, in which he has united all
spiritual and worldly power in his own person Christ will annihi-
late him by his appearance. Isaiah prophesying of the Messiah, ex-
presses the same idea in the words nard^a yr\v ru> Aoyoj TOV aro\ia-
rog avrov not iv TTvevpari did %etkeuv dvekel doejSrj (Is. xi. 4). But in
the Apocalypse the appearing of Christ and his fight with Anti-
christ are described in such a way that " from his mouth issueth a
sharp sword," and Antichrist, together with his prophet and whole
party, is conquered with it (Rev. xix. 15, 19, seq.) According to
this, the sense of the words is that Christ merely by his word and
330 SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 9, 10.
his appearing, thus by the smallest means and the slightest trouble,
will destroy the whole threatening power of Antichrist, which no
earthly power could conquer. He, from whom powers of the Al-
mighty issue, need only command, and the breath of his mouth (Ps.
xxxiii. 6), the brightness of his appearance, suffice to annihilate all
his adversaries. Uvev^a here has no reference to the Holy Ghost,
still less to storm, burning wind, but it denotes the breath of respi-
ration, as an expression of the word and of the will. The combina-
tion Im^dveia rijg Trapovoiag, which is found here only, is, however,
peculiar. That is to say, commonly tTn^dveia by itself denotes the
advent (so especially Paul frequently in the Pastoral Epistles), as it
in profane writers denotes Divine appearances on account of the
blinding splendour of light, the <56a, which was thought to be con-
joined with them. Here we explain the apparent tautology by re-
ferring im<f>dveia to the subjective, rrapovoia to the objective, aspect,
t. e., the latter expression to the actuality of Christ's appearing, the
former one to the contemplation of it on the part of man, the con-
sciousness of his presence. (For dvahuoet A.B.D.F. read ai-eAw,
which Lachmann has received into the text. But the more uncom-
mon dvakwaei is no doubt to be preferred, as dvetel is, surely, only a
gloss from Isaiah xi. 4. The word dvaXiaitu occurs elsewhere in the
New Testament only at Luke ix. 54. The LXX. often use it for
nVa or eicn Gen. xli. 30 ; Numb. xi. 33. On Karapyelv, so familiar
to Paul, see on Luke xiii. 7 ; Rom. iii. 31. It, of course, denotes here
not absolutely to annihilate, but to make inoperative, to deprive of
influence as Antichrist ; for, according to Kev. xix. 20, his condem-
nation in the lake of fire, not his entire annihilation, follows his sub-
jection.
Vers. 9, 10. The whole of ver. 9 has a parenthetical nature,
for the ov KOTLV connects itself again with ver. 7. Here, the d-rro-
KaAvi/>if is called, by analogy with Christ's advent, also rrapovata.
True, the appearing of Antichrist on earth properly stands par-
allel to Christ's birth in the flesh, or the Lord's official, public,
appearance at the baptism, but -napovaia is used for those also, 2
Pet. i. 16, as t-rw^aveta is at 2 Tim. i. 10. Antichrist's coming, then,
is brought into comparison with the earthly ministry of Christ, as
exhibiting itself also as surrounded with all forms of wonderful ac-
tion, which, however, are grounded, riot, like Christ's miracles, in
truth, but in falsehood, in that they are performed, not in God's
power, but in Satan's. For the Apocalypse (xiii. 2) relates of An-
tichrist, Kal edw/cev avroi 6 dpdituv rr\v dvvafiiv avrov nal rov dpovov
avrov Kal Kt-ovoiav (j-eyaAqv. As, therefore, the Father gave all power
to Christ, the Son, and lets him sit on his throne (Rev. iii. 21), so
too in the diabolical imitation, Satan gives all his power to Anti-
christ, his dear son. But, as Satan himself is a created being,
SECOND THESSALONIANS II. 9, 10. 331
although, a mighty one, the wonders also which he performs through
Antichrist can be merely mirabilia, no true miracula. They will
exhibit themselves as striking occurrences exciting outward atten-
tion, but without connexion with the salvation of mankind and the
designs of the Divine government, such as marks the miracles of
Jesus and the apostles ; consequently, as mere magical monstro-
sities. Nevertheless, they will yet be seductive enough for many
a disorderly, unsettled, mind, as the remarkable word of the Lord
at Matth. xxiv. 24 shews, according to which, if it were possible,
even the elect might be seduced into error by the wonders of the
false prophets. For the false wonders will not be done by Anti-
christ alone, but, as Christ imparted to his disciples also the gift to
work miracles, so will also all the false prophets who accompany
Antichrist execute lying wonders. In the Apocalypse the beast,
which comes up out of the earth (xiii. 11), which has two horns like
the Lamb, i. e., appears outwardly as a hypocrite, but speaks like
the dragon, shews itself as a designation of the prophets of Anti-
christ, by means of whom men are brought to him. (See Rev. xvi.
14, xix. 20.) It is quoted (Eev. xiii. 15) as an especialry character-