the Teuton defense along the whole
front. On that day there was excep-
tionally heavy fighting, but the Rus-
sians made no further advances. On
the contrary, they were thrown back
slightly at several points.
On July 16, the Austrians, reinforced
by Germans, resumed their counter-
attacks against the Russians about
Kalusz. The latter were driven back
across the river and the town aban-
doned. The weather was clearing now,
but with the renewal of operations the
first signs of the fundamental deteriora-
tion of the Russian soldier as a fighting
unit.
THE FIRST WHOLE REGIMENT ABANDONS
THE TRENCHES.
After a thorough artillery prepara-
tion the Germans had attacked the
Russians near Barbutzov, twenty miles
south of Brody. During the morning
(July 19), the Russians successfully
drove the German attacks back. But
shortly before mid-day the 6oyth
Mlynov Regiment, stationed between
Batov and Manajov, deliberately leif
its trenches, at a moment when the
enemy was not pressing the attack, and
721
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
retired to the rear, refusing to fight
any further. The Russian lines on
each side of the regiment had, in con-
sequence, also to retire to prevent the
Germans pouring in through the breach
at the next attack. The Russian re-
ports blamed this incident to the
agitation of a number of Bolshevist
members of the regiment.
Unfortunately this was typical of
fused to obey their commanders. Con-
sequently our lines were forced to
retire."
T7-ORNILOV GIVEN COMMAND OF THE
IV WHOLE GALICIAN FRONT.
Hastily the Provisional Govern-
ment attempted to check the demoral-
ization by a change in the command of
the Russians operating in Galicia.
Kornilov, who had shown such brilliant
BARBED WIRE CONSTRUCTION IN POLAND
is German wire but the line of battle was moved.
dozens of such incidents, which hap-
pened during the operations of the
next few days. Everywhere men were
refusing to obey their officers. Under
the strain the Russian spirit was
broken, not so much by attacks on
the front as from the rear. Russian
reports now admitted that Russian
army organization was collapsing, that
disaffection was spreading like a prairie
fire. Speaking of the Russian retreat
before Tarnopol, the Petrograd report
said:
"On the whole our soldiers did not
show the necessary determination to
win. Some regiments deliberately re-
722
Pictures from H. Ruschin
results in the capture of Kalusz with
the Eighth Russian Army, was given
command of the whole front in Galicia.
Kornilov was unpopular with the
radical elements, on account of the
almost ferocious disciplinary methods
he sometimes employed, but Kerensky
was willing to risk the displeasure of
the Soviet, if only the German advance
could be stemmed. But neither Kor-
nilov nor any other general could have
accomplished that with the material
at his disposal. The soul of the army
had vanished. Regiments with glorious
records now fled before the enemy, or
refused to advance.
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
The German General Staff under-
stood the situation, and was now
determined to take full advantage of it.
The German offensive was pushed
with extreme energy. Again and again,
day by day, the Austro-Germans
struck at the Russian lines, pushing
them back mile after mile. The main
point of their offensive was at Tarnopol,
and here the Russians were completely
was launched, but broke up before the
German fire. In the direction of Vilna
a succession of Russian infantry attacks
succeeded in penetrating the German
lines over two miles and taking over a
thousand Germans prisoners. But
this and similar slight successes could
not be sustained, largely through the
apathy of the rank and file of the
Russian troops. In the south the
RUSSIAN TROOPS DRINKING FROM A STREAM
Spring comes late in northern Russia and the ice in the rivers and snow take a long time to thaw. In this picture
Russian soldiers are refreshing themselves by a drink of water on the way to Germany. It is a typical scene, for
who can think of Russia without recalling snow and plains?
routed. In the afternoon of July 21,
the Germans and Austrians forced
their w r ay forward from Tarnopol to a
point as far as the Sereth bridgehead.
The town of Tarnopol and a number of
neighboring villages were soon a mass
of flames. By the end of the day the
entire Russian front from the Zlota
Lipa to the Dniester was retiring before
the pressure of the enemy.
THE WHOLE RUSSIAN LINE IS BADLY
DEMORALIZED.
Hoping to create a diversion, the
Russians now attempted to take the
offensive in the north. From Smorgon
to Krivo a general infantry attack
Teutons advanced more and more
swiftly, along a line almost 170 miles
in length, from the River Sereth to the
foothills of the Carpathians.
By the 23rd the Teutons had crossed
the Sereth, near Tarnopol, and ad-
vanced beyond Halicz. Some Russian
divisions here offered a resistance
noteworthy in contrast with the general
demoralization of the Russians as a
whole, but they did not succeed in
doing more than temporarily delaying
the German advance. Southwest of
Dvinsk several Russian regiments suc-
ceeded in taking and occupying the
German front line trenches and then,
723
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
without any pressure from the enemy,
they threw down their guns and retired
to the rear. The gains of 1916 and
more had been lost in a week.
BRUSILOV RESIGNS AND IS SUCCEEDED
BY KORNILOV.
On August i, the Russian Com-
mander-in-chief, Brusilov, handed in
his resignation, and the Provisional
Government immediately appointed
were presented and, had he followed
his own will, he would not have
accepted them. Kerensky had a fixed
belief that wars could be won by
words, but the other members of the
Cabinet felt that Kornilov was the
only man capable of maintaining a
front against the enemy, if any man
were capable of that gigantic task.
But if Kornilov succeeded in accom-
TRENCHES ON THE EASTERN FRONT
These are Russian trenches supposedly bomb-proof, built with thoroughness and method. Besides their value
for safety, they were warm during the long snowy winters. Where the trenches were anywhere permanent Rus-
sians and Germans vied with one another in their elaboration, though the latter were as a rule better fitted up
inside.
Kornilov in his stead. Kornilov imme-
diately made certain "conditions" on
which depended his acceptance of the
supreme command. First of all, he
refused to be responsible to anybody
in his direction of the military op-
erations, except to "his own con-
science." He also insisted that "the
measures adopted during the past few
days at the front shall also be applied
behind the lines," which meant that
he had re-established the death penalty.
Kerensky has since stated that the
members of the Government found the
substance of these demands more
acceptable than the form in which they
724
plishing any good by his severe methods,
it was not obvious in any stiffening of
the Russian lines. From all points
came only reports of retreat. In the
Carpathians the Austro-German forces
pressed back the Russians west of the
River Putna, about thirty-five miles
southwest of Czernowitz. On August
3, the Russians gained a local and a
temporary success, driving the Aus-
trians out of a number of villages south
of Skala, in Galicia. But this was more
than offset by the Austrian advance
further south in Bukqvina, where they
drove the Russians out of Czernowitz
and across the Pruth. The capital
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
of Bukovina was once more in the
hands of the Austrians.
From now on, however, the Austro-
German offensive in Galicia and further
south slackened. Conditions such as
those which had existed during the
early part of the year began to prevail
again. The Russians had been thor-
oughly beaten, and the Germans could
remain satisfied with what they had
the rescue and attempted to cross the
river Sereth.
In spite of the wholesale desertion
of whole Russian regiments the Ru-
manians stood firm. If they gave way
all Rumania was lost, but the First
Army did not give a yard. The battle
centred around Marasesti, the greatest
battle in Rumanian history. On August
19, the last desperate assault failed.
RUTHENIAN BLACKSMITH AT WORK
The Ruthenians, as subjects of the Austrian Empire, were impressed into the armies and forced to fight in a
quarrel about which they knew little, and cared less. This blacksmith, a fine sturdy type, is plying his trade in a
quiet field behind the lines with the primitive appliances with which he has always worked.
Picture, H. Ruschin
The attack against the Second Army,
around Ocna was hardly more suc-
cessful, and the remnant of Rumania
was preserved until the complete
demoralization of Russia left it sur-
rounded by enemies.
THE GERMANS NOW TAKE RIGA WITHOUT
DIFFICULTY.
Toward the end of August the
Germans showed increasing activity in
the northern section of the Eastern
Front. They had decided that they
wanted Riga, and set out to obtain it.
On August 22, they began to advance,
and in two days they had reached the
River Aa and several points on the
725
won while the Bolshevist agitators
with the weapons of propaganda con-
tinued the war for them.
THE REMNANT OF RUMANIA IS SAVED
FOR A TIME.
Meanwhile lower down the Ruman-
ian front was held by the First and
Second Rumanian Armies, and the
Fourth Russian Army under General
Scherbachev. During the latter part
of July there was some sharp fighting
in the Susitza valley. The Austro-
German forces were driven back,
though various units of the Russian
forces were evaporating and disap-
pearing. Von Mackensen came to
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
Gulf of Riga. On September i, 1917,
the Germans delivered persistent in-
fantry attacks, about fifteen miles
above Riga. They successfully crossed
the Dvina and drove the Russians
back. On the morning of September 3,
the Russians were compelled to evac-
uate the city of Riga, blowing up the
bridges across the river and the
fortifications as they retired. Already
his Cabinet strove heroically to restore
the discipline of the Army by a re-
establishment of those measures which
had been demanded by General Kor-
nilov. The latter remained dissatisfied,
however; he wished the death penalty
to apply behind the lines as well,
especially in the transport service and
in the munitions factories.
Then, encouraged by the conserv-
ANOTHER COMMON USE OF BARBED WERE
Types of Russian prisoners in a German detention camp at Zossen, a town just south of Berlin. The men are
warmly clad and, so far as their clothes and boots are concerned, are in good condition. When prisoners were cap-
tured in an advance they were taken to the rear and left in wire compounds until final disposition could be made
of them. Pictures from Henry Ruschin
German shells from large calibre guns
were dropping into the heart of the
city and causing much destruction.
That same evening the German troops
entered and took possession. They
found little in the way of war material,
however, for the Russians had had
time to remove everything of military
value.
THE QUESTION OF A DICTATORSHIP IS
NOW DISCUSSED.
The fall of Riga caused propor-
tionately a greater shock in Russia
than anything that had befallen the
Russian armies during the retreat
after the middle of July. Kerensky and
726
ative elements, he decided to take the
situation entirely into his own hands
and proclaim himself dictator, that he
might autocratically apply his dis-
ciplinary system in full. But it was
now too late. The rank and file of
his armies had drunk too deeply of the
Socialist doctrines to be willing to
support him. He could depend only
on the semi-barbarian regiments from
the Caucasus and Asiatic Russia, and
even these, including his own Cossacks,
showed no enthusiasm for a dictator-
ship. On the other hand, the rank and
file rallied to Kerensky's call for help.
For a short period the workers in the
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
munitions factories worked day and cause. Fighting, except of the most
night, believing that thereby they sporadic kind, ceased on the Russian
were helping to suppress Kornilov. front, and the soldiers gave themselves
THE ARMY NOW ONLY AN ARMED MOB. up almost entirely to holding meetings
and discussing politics. Many officers
After Kornilov's arrest, in the middle were killed or degraded. Only to repel
of September, even Kerensky realized German raids or local attacks would
that the Russian Army was no longer they take up their guns, and these acts
a factor in the war against the Central of aggression the Germans soon ceased
OPERATIONS AROUND THE GULF OF RIGA
Powers. Kornilov's successor, General
Dukhonin, was an honest and sincere
supporter of the Provisional Govern-
ment, but he had not the genius to
affect in the slightest the situation at
the front.
It was now that the Bolshevist
propaganda began to make rapid
strides within the army itself, shown in
the sudden majority given the Bol-
shevist faction in the Soviet. Fear of a
counter-revolution in favor of the
autocracy, rather than a genuine
jelief in the doctrines of Lenin, was the
almost entirely. The artillery regi-
ments for a long time showed them-
selves least susceptible to the Bol-
shevist agitation, and for some time
the Russian guns did continue bom-
barding the German lines, but even
while the artillery continued hostilities,
the infantry would fraternize with the
enemy in the trenches. This was
strongly encouraged by the Bolshevist
agitators, who had leaflets and pam-
phlets printed in German, which were
passed over to the German soldiers in
the hope of converting them to the
727
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
Bolshevist doctrines of pacifism. As
later events were to prove, the Ger-
mans were little affected, though it
was the policy of the German officers
to encourage a belief to the contrary
among the Russians.
*-pHE GERMANS TAKE WHATEVER THEY
1 WISH.
Before the final collapse of the
Kerensky regime, however, Russian
patriots were to suffer another blow
from an enemy success. On October
12, 1917, under cover of strong naval
detachments, the Germans landed
marines and soldiers on the shore of
Tagga Bay, north of the Island of
Oesel, in the Gulf of Riga. An engage-
ment took place between the German
ships and the Russian ships and shore
batteries, in which the former prevailed
through their greatly superior force,
though here the Russians showed a
determined resistance. During the
next few days the Germans also
occupied Oesel and Dago islands, and
still later, Moon Island. In the naval
operations which took place during this
period the Russians lost several large
ships, though the Russian official re-
ports claimed that the Germans lost
two dreadnoughts, one cruiser, twelve
torpedo boats and a number of smaller
craft.
As a contrast to these German suc-
cesses, the German lines in the Riga
sector were withdrawn considerably for
the purposes of straightening out the
front. This at least relieved the fear
of the Russians that Petrograd was
to be made the object of immediate
attack. Only a few weeks intervened,
however, between then and the final
collapse of Russia as an enemy of
Germany, when the Bolsheviki were to
open the negotiations which were to
culminate in the humiliating peace of
Brest-Litovsk.
SOME SLIGHT OPERATIONS TAKE PLACE
ON THE TURKISH FRONT.
Of the operations on the Russo-
Turkish front during the Kerensky
regime only a few words are necessary.
In April the Russians had been forced
to retire from Mush. During the rest
of the summer practically no reports
came in from this front. On November
4, only three days before the Bolshevist
revolution, there was a slight revival
of activity against the Turks. In the
Black Sea Coastal region, in the
Kalkit-Tchiflik sector, the Russians
began a sudden offensive and penetrat-
ed the Turkish lines to their third line
trenches. But this slight success was
not sustained. Later in November
further hostilities were continued, in
co-operation with the British forces
north of Bagdad, for apparently the
Russians in this more distant theatre
of the war were the last to be
affected by the wave of Bolshevist
propaganda.
728
The White House at Washington
CHAPTER XLV
The United States Enters the War
UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE BRINGS THE
NATION INTO THE CONTEST
13 Y the close of 1915 American
diplomacy seemed to have won a
victory in the submarine controversy.
Germany had agreed that no passenger
vessels should be sunk without pro-
vision being made for the complete
safety of the passengers and crew.
The feeling of relief which this agree-
ment brought was soon disturbed by
the controversy over the arming of
merchant vessels. (See p. 275.)
THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT DENIES
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE SUSSEX.
Pending the settlement of the dispute
the country was aroused by the news
of the 'sinking of the cross channel
steamer Sussex on March 24, 1916.
The Sussex was not armed and had
never carried troops. The attack was
without warning and resulted in the
injury or death of eighty passengers,
among them several Americans. This
was a violation of an explicit promise.
The German government, while ad-
mitting that a vessel had been sunk
at the time and place indicated, con-
tended that the vessel was not the
Sussex. To substantiate this claim
the authorities submitted a sketch of
the vessel sunk, made by the com-
mander of the submarine, differing
in shape and construction from the
Sussex. It is difficult to believe that
even the German officials took this
"evidence" seriously.
THE AMERICAN NOTE AMOUNTS TO AN
ULTIMATUM.
Secretary Lansing despatched a note
to Germany in the nature of an
ultimatum. Recalling the previous
promises made by the German authori-
ties and indicating that the sinking
of the Sussex clearly violated these
pledges, he declared that unless the
Germans should immediately abandon
their "present methods of submarine
warfare against passenger and freight-
carrying vessels" the United States
would have no other recourse than to
break diplomatic relations with Ger-
many.
The German reply was received on
May 4, 1916. It stated that the
commanders of submarines had re-
ceived the following instructions: "In
accordance with the general principles
of visit and search and destruction
of merchant vessels recognized by
international law, such vessels, both
within and without the area declared
a naval war zone, shall not be sunk
without warning and without saving
human lives unless these ships attempt
to escape or offer resistance."
AMERICAN RIGHTS NOT DEPENDENT
I\ UPON BRITISH ACTION.
It was stated, however, that the
United States was expected to insist
that Great Britain should abandon
her blockade of Germany and her
729
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
interference with neutral trade. Should
the British government fail to do so
the German note stated that "the
German government would then be
facing a new situation, in which it
must reserve to itself complete liberty
of decision."
Mr. Lansing replied that the United
States would expect Germany to carry
out scrupulously its announced change
of policy and "cannot for a moment
entertain, much less discuss, a sugges-
tion that respect by German naval
THE GERMAN BLOCKADE OF EUROPE
The area declared blockaded is indicated by diagonal
lines, and the lanes through which passage was per-
mitted are indicated.
authorities for the rights of citizens
of the United States upon the high
seas should in any way or in the slight-
est degree be made contingent upon
the conduct of any other government
affecting the rights of neutrals and non-
combatants. Responsibility in such
matters is single, not joint; absolute,
not relative." No reply was received
to this note.
THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT ANNOUNCES
UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE.
Once more the people of the United
States breathed more freely as a result
of what appeared to be a final settle-
ment of the submarine problem. For
nine months, from May, 1916, to
February, 1917, German submarines
generally observed the promise which
730
had been made to comply with the rules
of cruiser warfare. The relief proved
to be but temporary, as this pause in
submarine frightfulness was not due to
any change of heart on the part of the
German authorities, but to policy.
Admiral von Tirpitz' Memoirs show
the conflicting forces in Germany at
this period.
On December 12, 1916, the Teutonic
alliance without previous intimation or
explanation proposed that the belliger-
ents "enter forthwith into peace ne-
gotiations." The military situation
and the internal conditions in Germany
will explain the reason. The war map
showed the Teutonic powers in posses
sion of large areas of enemy territory.
Belgium, Northern France, Serbia,
Montenegro, Rumania and Russian
Poland and some of the Baltic lands of
Russia had been overrun. All of these
were valuable pawns with which to
negotiate if the Entente should agree
to enter upon peace discussions. It
seemed improbable that the situation
would ever be more favorable for the
Teutonic powers. But these notable
gains had not been won without great
sacrifices by the German people. Two
years of warfare had made great
inroads upon the man power and
material resources of the Teutonic
allies. The blockade was making it
increasingly difficult for the German
authorities to obtain essential war
materials, to say nothing of food and
clothing for the civilian population.
THE REASONS FOR THE GERMAN OFFER
OF PEACE.
In these circumstances something
was needed to strengthen the morale
of the German people. By making a
peace offer which they knew would be
rejected by their enemies, the German
leaders hoped to be able to convince
the German people that they were
fighting a defensive struggle and thus
to reconcile them to greater sacrifices.
As was anticipated the Entente
Allies refused to consider the German
proposal, which they stated was "empty
and insincere." Mr. Lloyd George
declared that "to enter on the in-
vitation of Germany, proclaiming her-
self victorious, without any knowledge
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
of the proposals she intends to make,
into a conference, is putting our
heads into a noose with the rope end
in the hands of the Germans."
"PRESIDENT WILSON ASKS FOR A STATE-
1 MENT OF WAR AIMS.
When the German peace offer ap-
peared President Wilson had already
prepared a communication to the
various belligerents. In this note the
President directed attention to the
fact that each side professed to be
fighting a defensive war; each claimed
to be "ready to consider the formation
of a League of Nations to ensure peace
and justice throughout the world."
The objects for which both sides were
fighting "stated in general terms seem
to be the same." The President felt
justified, therefore, in asking the belli-
gerents to state "the precise objects
which would, if attained, satisfy them
and their people."
In reply the German government
evaded the question but renewed its
offer to enter upon peace negotiations.
The Entente powers replied more to
the point. While they were unwilling
to declare their objects in complete
detail, certain fundamental conditions
were set down. These included the
restoration of Belgium, Serbia, and
Montenegro with compensation; the
evacuation of France, Russia and
Rumania with just reparation; the
reorganization of Europe on a stable
basis which involved the liberation
of the subject nationalities in Germany,
Austria and Turkey. At the same time
it was stated that it was not the pur-
pose of the Entente allies "to encom-
pass the extermination of the German
people and their political independence."
"PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS TO THE CONGRESS
L OF THE UNITED STATES, j
In requesting this information from
the belligerents the President indicated
that he was not proposing mediation
or even the calling of a peace confer-
ence. He was seeking information by
which the United States could be
guided in formulating its future policy
toward the war and more particularly
in regard to the peace which should
end the war. In a remarkable address
delivered before the Senate on January
22, 1917, President Wilson developed
more fully this idea. He stated that it
was inconceivable that the United
States should not play a part "in the
days to come when it will be necessary