to lay afresh and upon a new plan
the foundations of peace among na-
tions." In such an enterprise the people
of the United States had a great
service to perform. "That service is
WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE
UNITED STATES
nothing less than this; to add their
authority and their power to the
authority and force of other nations to
guarantee peace and justice throughout
the world. " If the people of the United
States were to be asked to join in this
great enterprise he felt that it was
necessary to formulate the conditions
upon which he "would feel justified
in asking our people to approve its
formal and solemn adherence to a
League for Peace. "
While the United States would have
no voice in determining the actual
terms of peace it was greatly interested
in what the terms of peace shall be.
"We shall have a voice in determining
whether they shall be made lasting or
731
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
not by the guarantees of a universal
covenant; and our judgment upon
what is fundamental and essential
as a condition precedent to permanency
should be spoken now, not afterwards
when it may be too late."
THE IDEA OF A LEAGUE OF NATIONS IS
PRESENTED.
"First it will be absolutely necessary
that a force be created as a guarantor
balance of power, but a community of
power; not organized rivalries, but an
organized, common peace."
PEACE WITHOUT VICTORY A NECESSITY
FOR PERMANENCE.
Furthermore a permanent peace
must be based upon an equality of
nations and national rights. "It must
be a peace without victory. It is not
pleasant to say this. I beg that I maybe
FORGING A CANNON AT THE BETHLEHEM STEEL WORKS
In making -a heavy cannon the great ingot of cast steel is forged into shape by continual blasts of heavy hammers
before it is entirely cool. Here we see an ingot under the hammer. The Bethlehem works had been engaged
in making munitions for the Allies on a large scale before the United States entered the war.
permitted to put my own interpretation
upon it and that it may be understood
that no other interpretation was in my
thought. I am seeking only to face
realities and to face them without soft
concealments. Victory would mean
peace forced upon the loser, a victor's
terms imposed upon the vanquished . . .
Only a peace between equals can last . .
Equality of territory or of resources
there, of course, cannot be; nor any
sort of equality not gained in the
ordinary peaceful and legitimate de-
velopment of the people themselves.
But no one asks or expects anything
more than an equality of rights."
Of even greater importance was the
of the permanency of the settlement
so much greater than the force of any
nation now engaged or any alliance
hitherto formed or projected, that no
nation, no probable combination of
nations, could face or withstand it."
But the terms of the peace must be
such as to warrant such a guarantee.
"The question upon which the whole
future peace and policy of the world
depends is this: Is the present war a
struggle for a just and secure peace,
or only for a new balance of power?
If it be only for a new balance of power,
who will guarantee, who can guarantee,
the stable equilibrium of the new
arrangement? There must be, not a
732
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
ROBERT LANSING, SECRETARY OF STATE
recognition of the rights of peoples to
formulate their own political institu-
tions. "No peace can last, or ought to
last, which does not recognize and
accept the principle that governments
derive all their just rights from the
consent of the governed, and that no
right anywhere exists to hand peoples
about from sovereignty to sovereignty
as if they were property Any
peace which does not recognize and
accept this principle will inevitably
be upset."
THE FREEDOM OF THE SEAS AND LIMITA-
TION OF ARMAMENTS.
A further principle which President
Wilson considered of vital importance
was the freedom of the seas. "The
freedom of the seas is the sine qua non of
peace, equality, and cooperation."
Such freedom contemplated "the free,
constant, unthreatened intercourse of
nations" on the high seas. In the case
of nations whose territory did not
touch the high seas a guaranteed and
neutralized right of way should be
provided. The problem of the freedom
of the seas involved the limitation of
naval armaments which in turn "opens
the wider and perhaps more difficult
question of the limitation of armies
and of all programmes of military pre-
paration. " These questions are difficult
and "they must be faced with the
utmost candor and decided in a
spirit of real accommodation, if peace is
to come with healing in its wings, and
come to stay. Peace cannot be had
without concession and sacrifice."
These were the conditions upon which
the President felt that the United
States might be asked to join with the
nations of Europe in guaranteeing
the peace of the world. While speaking
as an individual he was "confident that
I have said what the people of the
United States would wish me to say."
Moreover he expressed the hope that
he was speaking "for the silent mass
of mankind everywhere who have had
as yet no opportunity to speak their
real hearts out concerning the death
and ruin they see to have come already
upon the persons and homes they
hold most dear I speak with the
greater boldness because it is clear to
every man who can think that there is
in this promise no breach in either our
traditions or our policy as a nation,
but a fulfilment, rather, of all that we
have professed or striven for. I am
proposing, as it were, that the nations
WALTER H. PAGE, AMBASSADOR TO GREAT
BRITAIN
733
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
should with one accord adopt the
doctrine of President Monroe as the
doctrine of the world; that no nation
should seek to extend its polity over
any other nation or people, but that
every people should be left free to
determine its own polity, its own
way of development, unhindered, un-
afraid, the little along with the great
and powerful."
out the country the President's words
made a deep impression, and excited
much discussion. It is significant that
there was so little popular dissent from
the bold stand. Such criticism as ap-
peared was directed chiefly to the de-
mands of a "peace without victory. " A
few objected to the idea that the United
States should assume any position in
settling European quarrels. Senator
GENERAL PERSHING AND STAFF ON BOARD THE BALTIC
General Pershing and his staff arrived at Liverpool June 7, 1917, and after a short stay in England crossed over to
France and established headquarters there, first in Paris, but later at Chaumont. Though the staff was subse-
quently much enlarged, and changed in harmony with General Pershing's idea of giving every man service with
troops, some of these officers retained their positions until the Armistice.
THE UNITED STATES TO ABANDON THE
POLICY OF ISOLATION.
This speech gives striking evidence
how greatly two years of war in Europe
had influenced political thinking in
the United States. Probably no Amer-
ican president had ever before so
frankly proposed such a fundamental
change in the foreign policy of the
country. It was a clear call to the
people of the United States to abandon
their traditional isolation from the
affairs of Europe and to assume among
the nations of the world that position
of leadership which their material and
moral strength warranted. Through-
734
Borah was thus early voicing loud op-
position to any change in the policy
of the Nation. Many expressed the
view that a lasting peace would not
come until the military power of Ger-
many was crushed. Ex-President
Roosevelt was particularly bitter.
Scarcely time enough was allowed
for the country to realize the full
significance of the change which this
address contemplated before it was
called upon to face a situation which
transformed the United States from
a deeply interested observer into a
full participant in the great world
drama.
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
NEWTON D. BAKER, SECRETARY OF WAR
WHY UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WAR-
FARE WAS RESUMED.
For nine months the German author-
ities generally observed the promise
that merchant vessels should not be
sunk without warning and without
saving human lives. All at once
without the slightest warning, on the
3ist of January, 1917, they served
notice that they proposed to resume
unrestricted submarine warfare.
The war had lasted much longer
than the German military leaders had
anticipated. The strength of the
Teutonic allies had reached, if it had
not passed, its maximum. Every month
that passed brought added strength to
their enemies. A war of attrition
could only end in a German defeat.
The resources of the United States
were aiding the Entente. There appear-
ed to be but one hope and that was to
force Great Britain to capitulate by a
policy of submarine terror. The ele-
ments which were willing to risk a
rupture with the United States grew
stronger. In the event of a break the
German leaders assumed that a coun-
try so unprepared for war could do
little damage, at least not before the
submarine had starved Great Britain
into submission. Events were to prove
that they miscalculated as badly in
this instance as they did in the invasion
of Belgium.
pvIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH THE GER-
LJ MAN EMPIRE ARE SEVERED.
The new war zone extended from a
point four hundred miles west of Ireland
and ran to a point nine hundred miles
west of Bordeaux. Lanes of safety in the
North Sea, along the Spanish coast
and in the Mediterranean Sea were
designated in order that access might
be had to neutral states. As a con-
cession to the United States one ship a
week was to be permitted to sail to
England, provided it sailed on a
specified day, over a designated course
to the port of Falmouth, and displayed
certain distinctive markings. Moreover
the United States government must
guarantee that such ships carried no
contraband. In submitting these pro-
posals the German government hoped
"that the United States may view the
new situation from the lofty heights of
impartiality and assist, on their part, to
prevent further misery and avoidable
sacrifice of human life." Both the
remarkable character of the German
proposals and the arrogant method of
JOSEPHUS DANIELS, SECRETARY OF
THE NAVY
735
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING, COMMANDING
AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
their presentation created amusement
as well as resentment throughout the
United States.
The German proposals were so
clearly a repudiation of the Sussex
pledge that President Wilson immedi-
ately ordered the recall of Ambassador
Gerard from Berlin and sent Ambassa-
dor von Bernstorff his passports. At
the same time he stated that he did not
believe that Germany would really do
what she threatened to do. In closing
Jtiis address to Congress he said: "We
<k> not desire any hostile conflict with
the Imperial German Government.
We are the sincere friends of the
German people and earnestly desire
to remain at peace with the Govern-
ment that speaks for them. We shall
not believe that they are hostile to us
unless and until we are obliged to
believe it; and we purpose nothing
more than - the reasonable defense of
the undoubted rights of our people. . . .
seek merely to vindicate our right to
liberty and justice and an unmolest-
ed life. These are the bases of peace,
not war. God grant we may not be
736
challenged to defend them by acts of
willful injustice on the part of the
Government of Germany!"
OTHER NATIONS HESITATE TO BREAK OFF
RELATIONS.
President Wilson immediately noti-
fied all other neutral governments of
the action of he Unite^' States and
suggested that they take similar action.
Though none followed the example of
t|ie United States, all the European
nations, the majority of the South
American republics, and China also,
sent vigorous notes of protest to the
German government.
There is little doubt that the Presi-
dent expressed the feeling of the
majority of the American people. It is
true that there were some who felt that
the United States should have entered
the war at the time of the sinking
of the Lusitania, while on the other
hand there were some German-Ameri-
cans and pacifists who maintained that
the President was leading the country
into a war which might be avoided.
The most conspicuous of the latter
was Mr. Bryan who urged the people
VICE-ADMIRAL WM. S. SIMS, COMMANDING
IN EUROPEAN WATERS
THE FIRST AMERICAN TROOPS DISEMBARKING IN FRANCE
The first American troops that landed in France in June, 1917, belonged to the First Division. The French were
much interested in their appearance, their uniforms and their methods, all of which were quite different
from those of the French Soldiers. Here they are in line waiting to carry their impedimenta from the transport.
THE FLAG OF THE SIXTEENTH REGIMENT IN PARIS
Some of the regiments of the American Army have a long and honorable history. This is the regimental flag
with the national colors, and the color guard of the Sixteenth Regiment of the Regular Army. This regiment
paraded in Paris on July 4, 1917, where the American troops attracted much attention. The size of the men was
one of the causes of wonder and almost of astonishment.
737
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
to telegraph the President and Con-
gressmen not to involve the country
in a war "on European soil in settle-
ment of European quarrels."
AMBASSADOR GERARD IS HAMPERED IN
I\ LEAVING GERMANY.
Leaving German interests in the
hands of Dr. Paul Ritter, the Swiss
Minister, Ambassador von Bernstorff
sailed from New York on February 14,
accompanied by the embassy officials
and a number of prominent Germans.
After some delay at Halifax, where the
British authorities made a thorough
search of baggage despite protests, the
party arrived safely at Copenhagen.
The American ambassador was not so
fortunate in his efforts to leave Germany.
Upon presenting his demand for his
passports he was assured that they
would be promptly furnished. Sub-
sequently, however, the German au-
thorities submitted to him a number of
proposals which they suggested should
be added to the existing treaty between
the United States and Germany. These
proposals provided that the personal
and property rights of the citizens of
each nation should remain undisturbed
and that such citizens should not be
interned or otherwise molested. Mr.
Gerard firmly declined to transmit any
such proposals and renewed his request
for his passports. After a delay of four
more days the German authorities
complied with his demand and he was
able at last to leave for Switzerland.
Thence he returned to the United
States by way of France and Spain.
The Spanish Ambassador and the
Dutch Minister took over the affairs
of the United States.
With the break in diplomatic rela-
tions the German authorities tried
to induce the President to enter upon
another long diplomatic discussion.
Through the Swiss Minister it was
proposed that the United States
indicate how the submarine warfare
might be modified to satisfy our
demands. To this suggestion the
President returned a flat refusal to
enter upon any discussion unless the
German authorities repealed the decree
of January 31 with its threat of unre-
stricted submarine warfare.
738
THE EFFECT OF THE ANNOUNCEMENT ON
AMERICAN SHIPPING.
In American shipping circles the
German threat aroused serious concern.
Owners refused to allow their vessels to
leave American ports and under-
writers declined to insure the cargoes
unless adequate protection was assured.
As a result there was a practical
embargo on American shipping. To
meet this situation President Wilson
went before Congress on February 26
and asked for authority to place arms
on American ships and to use "any
other instrumentalities and methods"
that he might deem necessary to
protect American ships and property
on the high seas. In Congress a bill was
introduced appropriating $100,000,000
to provide armament for merchant
ships but that body was unwilling to
grant the President the additional
power which he requested. The bill
passed the House of Representatives
by a large majority. In the Senate a
small but determined group of Senators
conducted a filibuster to prevent the
passage of the bill before the expiration
of the session on March 4. They were
Senators La Follette, Norris, Cummins,
Gronna, Clapp, and Works, Republic-
ans; and Stone, O'Gorman, Kirby,
Lane and Vardaman, Democrats.
THE INTERCEPTED GERMAN NOTE SEEK-
ING ALLIANCE WITH MEXICO.
While the debate in the Senate was
proceeding the State Department is-
sued an intercepted dispatch from
Dr. Alfred Zimmermann, then German
Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs,
to the German Minister in Mexico
which gave a striking illustration of
the utter stupidity of German diplo-
macy. The Zimmermann dispatch
was as follows:
"On the first of February we intend
to begin submarine warfare unrestrict-
ed. In spite of this, it is our intention
to endeavor to keep neutral with the
United States of America. If this
attempt is not successful, we propose
an alliance on the following basis with
Mexico. That we shall make war
together and together make peace.
We shall give general financial support
and it is understood that Mexico is to
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
reconquer the lost territory of New
Mexico, Texas and Arizona. The
details are left to you for settlement.
"You are instructed to inform the
President of Mexico of the above in
the greatest confidence as soon as it
is certain that there will be an outbreak
of war with the United States, and
suggest that the President of Mexico,
effect of overcoming the opposition
in the Senate to the President's propos-
al and the session closed without action
having been taken. Seventy-five of
the ninety-six members of the Senate
signed a protest in which they in-
dicated their desire to vote for the
measure but were prevented from
doing so because of the Senate rule
THE LANDSHIP "RECRUIT" IN UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK
One of the most interesting and effective aids to recruiting for the Navy was the landship" Recruit" in Union Square,
which remained during the whole war. It was a reproduction in wood of one of the great steel battleships, lattice
masts, ship's bell and all. Prospective recruits could see sailors going about their daily tasks.
New York Times Photo Service
on his own initiative, should com-
municate with Japan, suggesting ad-
herence at once to the plan, and at the
same time to offer to mediate between
Japan and Germany. Please call to the
attention of the President of Mexico
that the employment of ruthless sub-
marine warfare now promises to compel
England to make peace in a few
months."
THE PRESIDENT REBUKES "THE LITTLE
GROUP OF WILLFUL MEN."
The disclosure of this effort on the
part of Germany to embroil the United
States with its southern neighbor
aroused bitter resentment throughout
the country, but it did not have the
allowing unlimited debate. Others
would have signed had they been
present.
The day following the close of the
session of Congress President Wilson
issued a stinging rebuke to the "little
group of willful men " who had defeated
the will of the great majority of the
members of Congress. He declared
that it was a situation "unparalleled
in the history of the country, perhaps
in the history of any modern govern-
ment More than 500 of the 531
members of the two houses were ready
and anxious to act; The House of
Representatives had acted by an
overwhelming majority, but the Senate
739
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
was unable to act because a little
group of eleven Senators had deter-
mined that it should not The
Senate of the United States is the only
legislative body in the world that
cannot act when its majority is ready
for action. A little group of willful
men, representing no opinion but their
own, have rendered the great Govern-
ment of the United States helpless
and contemptible The only rem-
edy is that the rules of the Senate shall
can be brought to a vote when two-
thirds of the members so order.
Having accomplished his purpose
President Wilson then obtained an
opinion from the Attorney-General
that he had the authority to place
armament on merchant vessels without
further authorization from Congress.
Acting upon this opinion it was announ-
ced that armed guards would be placed
on all American vessels passing through
the war zone. This condition of armed
FLEET OF AMERICAN TROOPSHIPS OUTWARD BOUND ON THE ATLANTIC
At a distance of about a mile, in order to be able to manoeuvre freely, steam the second and third ships of this
fleet. The men, wearing their life-belts, are prepared for submarine attack; the guns in readiness for training
on the difficult mark of the elusive periscope; the life-boats swung out for quick launching.
International Film Service
be so altered that it can act. The
country can be relied upon to draw the
moral. I believe that the Senate can be
relied on to supply the means of action
and save the country from disaster."
ARMED NEUTRALITY MOVES ON TOWARD
\ OPEN WAR.
The response of the country to the
appeal of the President was immediate
and impressive. Mass meetings were
held to condemn the action of the
"willful" Senators. Societies adopted
resolutions of protest and the legisla-
tures of a number of states pledged
their support to the President.
Impressed by this outburst of public
feeling the Senate, in special session,
modified its rules so that a measure
740
neutrality could obviously not con-
tinue any great length of time. Either
Germany must abandon her policy
of submarine ruthlessness or a clash
was certain to result. On March 19,
news was received that three American
ships had been sunk within twenty-four
hours with the loss of fifteen lives.
From all parts of the country came
demands for immediate and decisive
action.
Fortified by these expressions of
public opinion the President, on March
21, summoned Congress to meet in
special session on April 2 "to receive
a communication from the Executive
on grave questions of national policy
which should be taken immediately
HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR
under consideration." As the mo-
mentous day approached there was in-
creasing evidence of popular enthusi-
asm. Mass-meetings were called for
the purpose of adopting patriotic
resolutions. Numbers of prominent
persons went to Washington for the
historic event. On the other hand a
group of pacifists also appeared to
make a final demonstration against
"With a profound sense of the
solemn and even tragical character
of the step I am taking and of the
grave responsibilities which it involves,
but in unhesitating obedience to what I
deem my constitutional duty, I advise
that the Congress declare the recent
course of the Imperial German Govern-
ment to be in fact nothing less than war
against the Government and people
THE FIRST UNITED STATES SOLDIERS IN LONDON
For the first time in history United States soldiers marched through London on August IS, 1917. They were re-
viewed by the King, the War Cabinet adjourned to observe the spectacle, and the streets were crowded with
interested and friendly spectators. Here they are seen marching through Bird Cage Walk to their camp.
London Daily Mail
entering the war. At 8:30 in the
evening of April 2, the President
entered the hall of the House of
Representatives. He was greeted
with the greatest enthusiasm. Nearly
every member in the great audi-
ence carried an American flag. With
an earnestness and dignity which the
gravity of the occasion called for the
President read his war message.
PRESIDENT WILSON'S MEMORABLE WAR
1 MESSAGE TO CONGRESS.
Reviewing Germany's acts since the
renewal of unrestricted submarine
warfare and characterizing them as
"warfare against mankind," he said:
of the United States; that it formally
accept the status of belligerent which
has thus been thrust upon it and that
it take immediate steps not only to
put the country in a more thorough
state of defense, but also to exert
all its power and employ all its re-
sources to bring the Government of
the German Empire to terms and to
end the war."
The President then indicated some
of the things which he considered
essential to be done in order to make
our participation in the war effective.
These included the extension of