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MANUAL OF GEOLOGY.
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MANUAL
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GEOLOGY:
TREATING OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL HISTOEY,
FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, AND SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE.
BY
JAMES D. DA^A, M.A., LL.D.
SILLIMAN PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY IN YALE COLLEGE; AUTHOR OF
''A SYSTEM OF MINERALOGY," OF REPORTS OF WILKES'S EXPLORING EXPEDITION
ON GEOLOGY, ON ZOOPHYTES, AND ON CRUSTACEA, ETC.
Licet jam oculis quodammodo contemplari pulchritudinem rerum earum,
quas divina providentia dicimus coustitutas. — Cic.
Nunquam aliud natura aliud sapientia dicet. — Jtiv.
ILLUSTRATED BY A CHART OF THE WORLD, AND OVER ONE THOUSAND
FIGURES, MOSTLY FROM AMERICAN SOURCES.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY THEODORE BLISS & CO.'
LONDON: TRUBNER & CO.
1863.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by
THEODORE BLISS & CO.
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern
District of Pennsylvania.
ELECTROTYPEB BT L. JOHNSON AND CO.
PHILADELPHIA.
C. SHERMAN & SOX PRINTERS.
PREFACE.
Two reasons have led the author to give this Manual its
American character: a desire to adapt it to the wants of Ame-
rican students, and a belief that, on account of a peculiar sim-
plicity and unity, American Geological History affords the best
basis for a text-book of the science. North America stands
alone in the ocean, a simple isolated specimen of a continent
(even South America lying to the eastward of its meridians),
and the laws of progress have been undisturbed by the conflicting
movements of other lands. The author has, therefore, written
out American Geology by itself, as a continuous history. Facts
have, however, been added from other continents so far as was
required to give completeness to the work and exhibit strongly
•the comprehensiveness of its principles.
It has been the author's aim to present, for study, not a series
of rocks with their dead fossils, but the successive phases in the
history of the earth, — its continents, seas, climates, life, and the
various operations in progress. Dynamical Geology, contrary
to the views of some geologists, has been placed after the strati-
graphical or historical portion. It will, however, be found that
through the latter the facts have been followed by statements
and explanations of principles; so that the student, on reaching
the pages treating of Geological Causes, will have already
learned much of what they contain.
As many readers may not be familiar with Zoology, a review
of the classification of animals, with many iUustrations, has been
given before entering upon the Dynamical History of the ancient
life of the world.
vu
Vlll PREFACE.
The Manual has been adapted to two classes of students, — ■
the literary and scientific, — by printing the details in finer
type. The convenience of a literary class has been further pro-
vided for by the addition of a brief synopsis of the work, in
which each head is made to present a subject, or question, for
special attention.
In the preparation of the American part of the volume, the
author has freely used the reports of the various geological
surveys of the country, the memoirs published in the different
scientific journals and transactions, and other works bearing on
the subject. He has also drawn from his own Memoirs and Ex-
ploring Expedition Reports, especially on the subjects of Coral
islands, — Volcanic islands, — the Formation of Valleys by the
action of rivers, — the General Features of the Globe, and their
origin, — American Geological history, — and the Temperature
of the Globe, as exhibited on the Physiographic Chart.
The illustrations of American Palaeozoic life have been
largely copied from the Reports of Professor Hall. A few of
the Palseozoic figures, and many of later periods, are from
original drawings made by Mr. F. B. Meek, to whose artistic
skill and pal^ontological science the work is, throughout, greatly
indebted. The drawings were nearly all made on the wood for
engraving by Mr. Meek; and the palseontological pages have had
the benefit of his revision. The name of the engraver. Lock-
wood Sanford, of New Haven, also deserves mention in this
place.
In selecting figures of foreign fossils for the Manual, those
used in Lyell's and other standard English Avorks have, with
few exceptions, been avoided, so that the student owning any
of those volumes will have additional illustrations of the
science. Many of the foreign figures are from the beautifully
illustrated " Paleontologie et Geologie" of Alcide d'Orbigny.
The author would make acknowledgments to his countrymen
for the readiness with which they have furnished aid, whenever
appealed to, and especially, for oft-repeated favors, to J. P.
Lesley, of Philadelphia; J. S. Newberry, of Cleveland, Ohio;
Arnold Guyot, of Princeton, N.J.; L. Lesquereux, of Co-
lumbus, Ohio; E. Billings, of Montreal, Canada; E. Jewett,
PREFACE. ix
of Albany, N.Y.; and W. C. Minor and Frank II. Bradley,
of New Haven. Mr. Bradley has given freely his constant as-
sistance during the progress of the work through the press.
The author has endeavored to bring the volume into as small
a compass as is consistent with a proper exhibition of the
science; and if some find its pages too numerous, he feels con-
fident that quite as many would prefer greater fulness. The
details introduced have seemed to be necessary in order that the
march of events might be appreciated.
Geology is rapidly taking its place as an introduction to the
higher history of man. If the author has sought to exalt a
favorite science, it has been with the desire that man — in whom
geological history had its consummation, the prophecies of the
successive ages their fulfilment — might better comprehend his
own nobility and the true purpose of his existence.
New IIavex, Ct., November 1, 1862.
TO INSTRUCTORS.
The " Brief Synopsis" of Appendix I. is intended to facilitate
the use of this Manual as a recitation-book. Lectures cannot well
be wholly dispensed with in the instruction of Natural or Physical
Science ; but, with a work so full of illustrations as this, they may,
with great advantage, be altogether subordinate to recitations, espe-
cially if the latter are accompanied with an exhibition of speci-
mens. Through the use of fine type for the details of the Science,
the Manual is made to combine in one a small and a large book.
The topics presented in the "Synopsis" are, with few exceptions,
those of the former ; and they are so prepared that each suggests
a question. A cursory perusal of the details in the smaller type is,
however, to be advised, as it will aid the student in acquiring precise
ideas. Even in scientific schools it may be best that the student
first go through the Manual with the Synopsis, and then, in a second
course, take up the Palaeontology and Dynamics with greater
thoroughness.
Every Academy or other Institution teaching the Science should
have, at least, a small collection of specimens. Even twenty-five
dollars will purchase one (of Louis Sa^mann, Paris, 45 Rue St. Andre-
des-Arts, or of Dr. A. Krantz, at Bonn on the Rhine) containing
specimens of nearly all the mineral species mentioned in the
Manual, and of the more common kinds of rocks, and another
twenty-five dollars, a collection of fossils that would be of great
service.
TABLE OP CONTENTS.
INTEODUOTIOlf.
PAGE
Relations of the Science of Geology 1
Subdivisions of Geology 7
PART I.— Physiographic Geology.
1. The Earth's General Contour and Surface-Subdivisions 9
2. System in the Reliefs of the Land 23
3. System in the Courses of the Earth's Feature-Lines 30
4. System of Oceanic Movements and Temperature 39
5. System of Atmospheric Movements and Temperature 44
6. Distribution of Forest-Regions, Prairies, and Deserts 46
PAET II .— Lithological Geology.
1. Constitution of Rocks 49
1. Elements constituting Rocks 50
2. Minerals constituting Rocks 55
3. Kinds of Rocks 70
1. Fragmental Rocks, exclusive of Limestones 73
2. Metamorphic Rocks not Calcareous 74
3. Calcareous Rocks^— Carbonates and Sulphates 84
4. Igneous Rocks 80
2. Condition, Structure, and Arrangement of Rock-Masses 90
1. Stratified Condition 90
1. Nature of Stratification 90
2. Structure of Layers 92
3. Positions of Strata 101
4. Order of Arrangement of Strata 112
2. Unstratified Condition — Veins — Dikes 117
xi
XU CONTENTS.
PAET III.-Historical Geology.
PAGE
General Divisions in the History 125
I. AZOIC TIME or AGE... 134
Review of the Animal Kingdom 147
Review of the Vegetable Kingdom l(j')
II. PALAEOZOIC TIME 167
I. Age of Mollusks, or Silurian Age 167
A. Lower Silurian 171
1. Potsdam or Primordial Period (Potsdam and
Calciferous Epochs) 171
[Review of the Order of Brachiopods 179
2. Trenton Period (Chazy and Trenton Epochs) 205
3. Hudson Period (Utica and Hudson River Epochs) 217
4. General Observations on the Trenton and
Hudson Periods 222
Disturbances closing the Lower Silurian Era, and
Geographical Results 226
B. American Upper Silurian 229
1. Niagara Period 229
1. Oneida Epoch 2.30
2. Medina Epoch 231
3. Clinton Epoch 283
4. Niagara Epoch 237
General Observations on the Niagara Period... 243
2. Salina Period (Leclaire and Saliferous Epochs).. 246
3. Lower Helderberg Period 251
Observations on the American Upper Silurian 256
C. Foreign Upper Silurian 260
II. Age of Fishes, or Devonian Age 265
1. American Subdivisions 265
1. Oriskany Period 266
2. Corniferous Period (Cauda-Galli, Schoharie, and
Upper Hehlerberg Epochs) 269
[Review of the Class of Fishes '. 277
3. Hamilton Period (Marcellus, Hamilton, and
Genesee Epochs) 280
4. Chemung Period (Portage and Chemung Epochs) 287
5. Catskill Period 291
2. Foreign Devonian 294
3. General Observations on the Devonian Age 299
4. Disturbances closing the Devonian Age 304
CONTENTS. • xiii
II. PALyEOZOIC T:UlE—{continuedy page
111. C.viujoNiiKRous Age 305
Subdivisions and American Distribution oUo
1. Subcarbonifcrous Period ;jOf)
1. American 000
2. Foreign 318
3. Disturbances preceding the CarbonitVrous Pe-
riod 320
2. Carboniferous Period ;;i!l
1. American ;52]
1. Epoch of the Millstone Grit 321
2. Epoch of the Coal .Measures 322
[Review of the Class of Reptiles 343
2. Foreign 352
3. General Observations on the Carboniferous
Period 359
3. Permian Period 369
1. American 309
2, Foreign 372
IV. General Observations on the PALiEozoic Ages 377
1. Rocks — Sections of the American Palteozoic Forma-
tions in diiferent States 377
2. American Geography 380
3. Oscillations of Level — Dislocations 388
4. Life 394
Disturbances closing Palieozoic Time 403
1. American 403
2. Foreign 412
Transition from the Palaeozoic to the Mesozoic 414
IIL MESOZOIC TIME 413
Reptilian Age 414
1. Triassic Period 414
1. American 414
[Review of the Class of Insects 420
[Review of the Class of Mammals 421
2. Foreign '. 433
'&'
3.
General Observations 438
Jurassic Period 444
1. American 444
2. Foreign 446
3. General Observations 405
XIV CONTENTS.
III. MESOZOIC TUIE— {continued). pagh
3. Cretaceous Period 4G7
1. American 467
2. Foreign 479
3. General Observations 488
4. General Observations on the Reptilian Age 493
1. Time-Ratios 493
2. Geography 493
3. Life 494
5. Disturbances during and at the close of the Rep-
tilian Age 502
IV. CEXOZOIC TIME 505
Mammalian Age 505
1. Tertiary Period 508
1. American 506
2. Foreign 522
General Observations 530
2. Post-Tertiary Period 535
1. Glacial Epoch 535
1. American 535
2. Foreign 540
3. Fiords 541
4. General Observations 541
2. American Champlain Epoch 547
3. American Terrace Epoch 554
4. Foreign Champlain and Terrace Epochs 558
■ 5. Life of the Post-Tertiary 558
6. General Observations on the Post-Tertiary 567
General Observations on the Cenozoic 568
1. Time-Ratios 568
2. Geography 568
3. Life 571
V. ERA OF MIND— AGE OF MAN 573
1. Rocks and Life 574
2. Changes of Level 586
VI. General Observations on Geological History 590
1. Length of Geological Time 590
2. Geographical Progress in North America 592
3. Progress of Life 592
1. System in the Progress of Life 592
2. Relations of the Progress to tlie Physical History of
the Globe 600
CONTENTS. XV
PART IV —Dynamical Geology.
PAGE
General Subdivisions GO.'i
I. Life G04
1. Protective Ettects 004
2. Transporting Eifects 005
3. Destructive Effects 005
4. Contributions to Rock Formations OOG
1, Peat Formations 013
2. Coral Formations 014
II. Cohesive Attraction — Crystallization 625
III. The Atmosphere 028
IV. Water 032
1. Fresh Waters 032
1. Superficial Waters — Rivers and Smaller Lakes G32
1. General Observations 032
2. Mechanical Effects 635
1. Erosion 035
2. Transportation 642
3. Distribution — Alluvial Formations 644
2. Subterranean Waters — Artesian Wells — Land-Slides.. 647
2. The Ocean — including also Large Lakes 650
1. Oceanic Forces — Currents — Waves 650
2. Oceanic Effects 655
1. Erosion 655
2. Transportation 657
3. Distribution — Marine and Fluvio-Marine Form-
ations 659
4. Action over a Submerged Continent 665
3. Freezing and Frozen Water 667
1. Freezing Water 667
2. Ice of Rivers and Lakes , 667
3. Glaciers 667
4. Icebergs 677
4. Formation of Sedimentary Strata 678
5. Topographical Results of Erosion over Continents 679
V. Heat 681
1. Heat of the Globe 681
2. Volcanoes 684
3. Non- Volcanic Igneous Ejections 702
4. Metamorphism and Origin of Veins 711
XVI CONTENTS.
PAGE
VI. Movements of the Earth's Crust, and their Consequences 716
1. Movements of the Earth's Crust — Plications — Mountains 716
2. Structural Peculiarities of Rocks 725
3. Earthquakes , 728
4. Evolution of the Earth's General Features 731
COSMOGONY 741
APPENDIX.
A. Animal Kingdom. — Distinctions of Animals and Plants — Proto-
z oans 747
B. Hudson Period — Lorraine Shales 750
C. Devonian Age 750
D. Glacial Epoch 751
E. Coral Reefs.— Rate of Growth— Florida Reefs— Chalk 752
F. Progress of Life 753
G. Mineral Oil 754
H. Catalogue of American Localities of Fossils 755
I. Brief Sj^nopsis of this Manual 757
J. Authorities of the Figures of Fossils, Sections, and Views 767
K. Scientific Nomenclature 772
INDEX 773
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
Ag. — L. Agassiz.
B.— E. Billings.
Brngt. — Brongniart.
Con.— T. A. Conrad.
D'Orb.— Alcide d'Orbignj.
D._J. D. Dana.
E. & H.— Edwards & Haime.
Ehr. — Ehrenberg.
Gopp. — Goppert.
H.— J. Hall.
H. & M.— Hall & Meek.
Hk.— E. Hitchcock.
L. — J. Leidy.
Lam. — Lamarck.
Lsqx. — L. Lesquereux.
Linn. — Linnaeus.
M.— F. B. Meek.
M. & H.— Meek & Hayden.
Schp. — Schimper.
Shum. — Shumard.
Sow. — Sowerby.
Sternb. — St er nb erg.
Suck. — Suckow.
T. & Hs.— Tuomey & Holmes.
Ung. — Unger.
Van. — L. Vanuxem.
INTRODUCTION.
1. Kingdoms of nature. — Science, in her survey of the earth,
has recognized three kingdoms of nature, — the animal, the vege-
table, and the inorganic ; or, naming them from the forms charac-
teristic of each, the animal-kingdom, the plant-kingdom, and the
CRYSTAL-KINGDOM. All individual in either kingdom has its sys-
tematic mode of formation or growth.
The plant or animal, (1) endowed with life, (2) commences from
a germ, (3) grows by means of imbibed nutriment, and (4) passes
through a series of changes and gradual development to the adult
state, when (5) it evolves new seeds or germs, and (G) afterward
continues on to death and dissolution.
It has, hence, its cycle of growth and reproduction, and cycle
follows cycle in indefinite continuance.
The crystal is (1) a lifeless object, and has a simpler history: it
(2) begins in a nucleal molecule or particle ; (3) it enlarges by
external addition or accretion alone ; and (4) there is, hence, no
proper development, as the crystal is perfect, however .minute :
(5) it ends in simply existing, and not in ref)roducing ; and, (G)
being lifeless, there is no proper death or necessary dissolution.
Such are the individualities in the great kingdoms of nature
displayed upon the earth.
2. But the earth also, according to Geology, has been brought to
its present condition through a series of changes or progressive
formations, and from a state as utterly featureless as a germ.
Moreover, like any plant or animal, it has its special systems of
interior and exterior structure, and of interior and exterior condi-
tions, movements, and changes ; and, although Infinite Mind has
guided all events towards the great end, — a world for mind, — the
earth has, under this guidance and appointed law, passed through
a regular course of history or growth. Having, therefore, as a
sphere, its comprehensive system of growth, it is a unit or indivi-
duality, not, indeed, in either of the three kingdoms of natii.'e
which have been mentioned, but in a higher, — a World-Kixgdom.
2 1
2 INTRODUCTION.
Every sphere in space must have had a related system of growth,
and all are, in fact, individualities in this Kingdom of Worlds.
Geology treats of the earth in this grand relation. It is as
much removed from Mineralogy as from Botany and Zoology. It
uses all these departments ; for the species under them are the
objects which make up the earth and enter into geological his-
tory. The science of minerals is more immediately important to
the geologist, because aggregations of minerals constitute rocks,
or the plastic material in which the records of the past were n^de.
3. The earth, regarded as such an individuality in a world-king-
dom, has not only its comprehensive system of growth, in which
strata have been added to strata, continents and seas defined,
mountains reared, and valleys, rivers, and plains formed, all in
orderly plan, but also a system of currents in its oceans and atmo-
sphere, — the earth's circulating-system ; its equally world-wide
system in the distribution of heat, light, moisture, and magnetism,
plants and animals ; its system of secular variations (daily, annual,
etc.) in its climate and all meteorological phenomena. In these
characteristics the sphere before us is an individual, as much
so as a crystal or a tree ; and, to arrive at any correct views
on these subjects, the world must be regarded in this capacity.
The distribution of man and nations, and of all productions
that pertain to man's welfare, comes in under the same grand
relation ; for in helping to carry forAvard man's progress as a race
the sphere is working out its final purpose.
There are, therefore,
4. Three departments of science arishig out of this indi-
vidual capacity of the earth.
I. Geology, which treats of (l)'the earth's structure, and (2) its
system of development, — the last including (1) its progress in
rocks, lands, seas, mountains, etc. ; (2) its progress in all physical
conditions, as heat, moisture, etc. ; (3) its progress in life, or its
vegetable and animal tribes.
II. Physiography, wliich begins where Geology ends, — that is,
with the adult or finished earth, — and treats (1) of the earth's final
surface-arrangements (as to its features, climates, magnetism, life,
etc.), and (2) its system of physical movements or changes (as
atmospheric and oceanic currents, and other secular variations in
heat, moisture, magnetism, etc.).
III. The earth with reference to max (including ordinary Geo-
graphy) : (1) the distribution of races or nations, and of all pro-
ductions or conditions bearing on the welfare of man or nations ;
and (2) the progressive changes of races and nations.
INTRODUCTION. 3
The first considers the structure and growtli of the eartli ; the
second, its features and world-wide activities in its finished state ;
the third, the fulfihnent of its purpose in man, for whose pupil-
age it was made.
5. Relation of the earth to the universe. — While recognizing the
earth as a sphere in a world-kingdom, it is also important to observe
that the earth holds a very subordinate position in the system of
the heavens. It is one of the smaller satellites of the sun, — its size
about l-1400,000th that of the sun. And the planetary system to
wjiich it belongs, although 3,000,000,000 of miles in radius, is but
one among myriads, the nearest star 7000 times farther off than
Neptune. Thus it appears that the eartli is a very little object in
the universe. Hence we naturally conclude that the earth is but
a dependent part of the solar system ; that as a satellite of the
sun, in conjunction with other planets, it could no more have
existed before the sun, or our planetary system before the uni-
verse of wdiich it is a part, than the hand before the body which
it obediently attends.
Although thus diminutive, the laws of the earth are the laws of
the universe. One of the fundamental laws of matter is gravita-
tion ; and this we trace not only through our planetery system,
but among the fixed stars, and thus know that one law pervades
the universe.
The rays of light which come in from the remote limits of space
are a visible declaration of unity ; for this light depends on mole-
cular vibrations, — that is, the ultimate constitution and mode of
action of matter ; and 'by the identity of its principles or laws,
whatever its source, it proves the essential identity of the molecules
of matter.
Meteoric stones are specimens of celestial bodies occasionally
sent to us from the heavens. They exemplify the same chemical
and crystallographic laws as the rocks of the earth, and have
afforded no new element or principle of any kind.
The moon presents to the telescope a surface covered with the
craters of volcanoes, having forms that are well illustrated by some
of the earth's volcanoes, although of immense size. The principles
exemplified on the earth are but repeated in her satellite.
6. Thus, from gravitation, light, meteorites, and the earth's satel-
lite, we learn that there is oneness of law through space. The
elements may differ in different systems, but it is a difference such
as exists among known elements, and could give us no new funda-
mental laws. New crystalline forms might be found in the depths
of space, but the laws of crystallography would be the same that
4 INTRODUCTION.
are displayed before us among the crystals of the earth. A text-
book on Crystallography, Physics, or Celestial Mechanics, printed
in our printing-offices, would serve for the universe. The universe,
if open throughout to our exj^lorations, would vastly expand our
knowledge, and science might have a more beautiful superstruct-
ure, but its basement-laws would be the same.
The earth, therefore, although but an atom in immensity, is
immensity itself in its revelations of truth ; and science, though
gathered from one small sphere, is the deciphered law of all
sj^heres.
It is well to have the mind deeply imbued with this thought
before entering upon the study of the earth. It gives grandeur
to science and dignity to man, and will help the geologist to
apprehend the loftier characteristics of the last of the geological
ages.
7. Special aim of geology, and method of geological reasoning.
— Geology is sometimes defined as the science of the structure of
the earth. But the ideas of structure and origin of structure are
inseparably connected, and in all geological investigations they go
together. Geology had its very beginning and essence in the idea
that rocks were made through secondary causes ; and its great aim
has ever been to study structure in order to comprehend the
earth's history. The science, therefore, is a historical science.
It finds strata of sandstone, clay -rock, and limestone, lying
above one another in many successions ; and, observing them in
their order, it assumes, not only that the sandstones were made
of sand by some slow process, clayey rocks of clay, and so on, but
that the strata were successively formed ; that, therefore, they belong