way and caravan centres for the same two years was as follows :





1919-20
/E


1920-1
E


Acre


214


534


Beersheba ....


463


3'4


Gaza


10,092


6,695


Haifa


164,391


169,031


Jaffa


146,204


186,336


Jerusalem ....


93,779


71,161


Khan Yunis


645


586


Ludd


1,893


5,255


Tul Keram ....


5,094


5,642


Qantara ....


5,375


3,446


Total ....


428,150


449,000



Municipalities. There are 22 municipalities in Palestine: Jeru-
salem, Ramalla, Beit Jala, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa, Ramleh,
Ludd, Gaza, Khan Yunis, Mejdel, Feluje, Beersheba, Nablus, Tul
Keram and Jenin in Samaria; Nazareth, Tiberias and Safed in
Galilee; and Haifa, Acre and Shefa 'Amr in Phoenicia. In 1919-20
their total revenue amounted to 89,000 (Jerusalem 29,500,
Jaffa 14,700) and their ordinary expenditure to 89,000. They
had a balance of 9,000 from the previous year and obtained loans
and grants from Government amounting to 10,000, repaying debt
to the amount of Ei 1,000.

Education. Palestine before the British occupation contained
numerous schools supported by religious bodies and charitable
organizations abroad, some of which were undoubtedly supported
more in the political interests of the countries concerned than for
strictly religious or educational purposes, and it is possible that in
the future certain institutions may suffer financially from the decay
of that political driving-force. For the year 1919-20 the Military
Administration granted 46,000 for Moslem education, and for
1921-2 the Civil Administration has allotted 103,000, and
employs 443 teachers. In addition to this the Zionist Organization
in 1920-1 provided for 135 educational institutions with 523
teachers and 12,830 Jewish pupils at a cost of about 110,000.
Christian schools in 191920, generally open to pupils of all denomi-
nations, provided for some 7,000 children, but many of these institu-
tions had been adversely affected by Turkish requisitions during the
war and had not recovered.

Defence. Under the final rearrangement of the Ottoman army
before the World War Palestine formed part of the recruitment area
of the VIII. (Damascus) Army Corps, and after the war was held
by a considerable army of occupation composed of British and
Indian troops. This, consisting of three Army Corps with a ration
strength of over 460,000 men and some 163,000 beasts at the time
of the Armistice, was reduced to 23,000 men on April I 1920, and
to 7,700 men on April I 1921. The scheme of local defence provides
for the formation of two battalions of troops to be recruited in
Palestine, and a police force has already been raised consisting on
April I 1921 of 78 officers and 1,392 other ranks, divided into four
categories :





Mounted


Foot


Railway


Prisons


N.C.O.s .
Men .


47
397


72
712


4
50


16

85
and Swardresses


Total


444


784


54


109



Railways. Although several schemes for railway construction
in Palestine were proposed during the period 1910-4, nothing was
done. On Oct. 14 1913 a Franco-Turkish agreement provided for
an extension of the standard-gauge line from Rayak in Syria to
Ludd in Palestine, where it would join the then existing narrow-

fiuge line from Jaffa to Jerusalem. By the same agreement a
rench firm was to obtain concessions for building harbours at
Haifa and Jaffa, and a little later a concession was granted to the
Perrier Bank to run a tramway from Jerusalem to Bethlehem.
None of these proposals was carried out, but during the war the
Turkish Government built an extension of the Hejaz railway from
Jenin on the plain of Esdraelon through Messudiye (56 km.) to
Nablus (15 km.) on the one hand, and on the other to Tul Keram
(20-5 km.) and thence to Ludd (42-5 km.), and from Junction Sta-
tion to Beersheba (83 km.), whence the line was taken on to El
'Auja (66 km.) for the attack on Egypt. A narrow-gauge branch
line was run from Tine on the Junction Station-Beersneba railway
to Beit Hanun (39 km.), near Gaza, with a branch from Deir Sineid
to Huj (12 km.), and another from Tul Keram to the forest near
Caesarea (24 km.), which was cut down for fuel. Owing to the
shortage of railway material the lines between Damascus and
Mezeirib (63 km.), Haifa and Acre (18 km.) and Jaffa and Ludd
(20 km.) were stripped and the rails sent south to be used for the new
extensions. Later the Beersheba El 'Auja extension was stripped
in its turn and the Tine-Beit Hanun-Huj branch was removed after
the arrival of the British.

The British-built standard-gauge line laid across northern Sinai,
Qantara-Romani (41 km.), opened July 1916; Romani-El 'Arish
(114 km.) Jan. 1917, El 'Arish-Rafa (45 km.) Mar. 1917, reached



Deir el Belah (219 km.) from Qantara in June 1917, and a branch
from Rafa to Karm (34-5 km.) was opened Oct. 28 1018. This was
later continued to Beersheba (24-5 km.) and opened May 3 1918.
The metre-gauge railway from Ludd to Jerusalem, much damaged
during the military operations in the autumn of 1917, was restored
and reopened Jan. 27 1918. Meanwhile, the standard-gauge from
Belah had been opened to Deir Sineid (28 km.) Nov. 28 1917, and to
Deiran (43 km.) Jan. 8 1918. On Feb. 4 1918 it was opened to Ludd
(15 km. or 305 km. from Qantara) and carried on to Rantie (9 km.) a
little later in readiness for the next forward move. While waiting for
this, the standard-gauge was opened to 'Artuf (31 km.) on March 31
and to Jerusalem (29 km.) June 15. This last section was laid by
day, while the narrow-gauge which it superseded continued to work
by night. The Turkish narrow-gauge between Junction Station
and Irgeig (72 km.) on the Rafa-Beersheba line was converted to
standard gauge between May 18 and July 8; thus Gen. Allenby was
able to dispose of a double line of standard gauge from his advanced
base at Ludd to Rafa, to which point the railway from Qantara had
been double-tracked by April 17 1918. Later, in 1919-20, the sector
Junction Station-Irgeig was dismantled. A number of narrow-
gauge lines were laid benind the front between Dec. 1917 and Sept.
1918 : Ludd to Jaffa (20 km.), Ludd to Ras el 'Ain (22 km.), Sarona
(on the Jaffa line) to near Jelil (14 km.), Kefr Jinnis on the Ras el
Ain line to Lubban (18 km.), Sheikh Muannis on the Sarona line to
Carrick Hill (3 km.), and from Jerusalem to Eire (28 km.). The
standard-gauge started north once more on the heels of the Sept.
advance, and was superimposed on the Turkish line from Ras el 'Ain
to Tul Keram (32 km. from Rantie) which was reached on Oct. 15.
The extension to Haifa (66 km. ; 413 km. from Qantara) was opened
early in Jan. 1919 and soon afterwards the narrow-gauge Acre branch
(18 km.) was restored. On Oct. 5 1920 the standard-gauge was
opened between Ludd and Jaffa (20 km.).

Agriculture. The crop returns for 1920-1 show the following
figures in kilogrammes:

Kgm.

Wheat 62,897,017

Barley 27,233,948

Beans 2,061,306

Peas . 3,441,525

Lentils 2,724,635

Kersenneh (Jilbaneh) 4,599,944

Durra 3,352,9i6

Sesame 2,488,229

Olive Oil 6,706,059

Grapes ' 5,490,306

Figs 5,419,878

Melons 16,351,022

Almonds 238,090

Total Kgm. 170,004,875

Oranges, Lemons, etc. 537,43 boxes

Of this total of 170,004,875 kilogrammes the production according
to districts was as follows:

Kgm.

Jerusalem 27,589,480

JaTa 40,866,228

Gaza 11,170,179

Phoenicia 35,852,954

Beersheba 9,005,058

Samaria 17,686,452

Galilee 27,834,524

Of the 537,000 boxes of oranges and lemons the Jaffa district
produced 498,000, Phoenicia being second with 36,000.

Trade. The bulk of the sea-borne commerce of Palestine passes
through its three chief ports of Gaza, Jaffa and Haifa. Of these
Haifa, before the war, had begun to supplant Beirut to a certain
degree as the port of Damascus, the Hauran and Gilead and, in
virtue of its connexion by rail with Medina, handled goods in
transit for that area as well ; consequently its trade was Syrian rather
than Palestinian and recovered sharply after the end of the Italo-
Turkish War in 1912. Gaza was concerned almost entirely with
an export trade of barley, chiefly used for making beer in England,
while Jaffa, with all its drawbacks, served as the chief port for
exports and imports of purely Palestinian origin and destination.
The standard-gauge railway leading to Egypt is also a great trade
route, more particularly for passengers and those classes of goods
which suffer from the delays still inevitable in bad weather at Jaffa.

The total trade of Palestine for the first complete year during
which the whole country was under British administration and at
peace, April 1919 March 1920. was:





Imports


Exports


April-June 1919 .
July-Sept. " .
Oct.-Dec. " .
Jan.-March 1920


1,098,938
861,869
984,926
1,296,334


130,463
129,719
196,552
236,968


4,242,067


693,702



PALGRAVE PANAMA



21



Of this the respective shares of Jaffa and Haifa as compared with the
last complete year before the war both calculated in E were :





Imports


Exports


Jaffa


E


E


1913 ....


1,279,785


726,775


1919-20 .


1,408,238


169,308


1920-21 (first 7






months)


1,186,079


127,360


Haifa






1913 ....


516,750


338,033 (1912)


1919-20 .


1,627,381


270,057


1920-21 (first 7






months)


95. 1 55


1 16,795



From this it is apparent that while Palestine had to buy largely
and at enhanced prices of those goods of which she was unable to
procure adequate supplies during the war, she had not yet recovered
her capacity for production after the dislocation of trade and ruin of
agriculture caused by the war, with the consequence that the balance
of trade was against her. It has been pointed out, however, that her
exports are bulkier than her imports, and that had tonnage been
available the exports would have been greater.

The deficiency of available tonnage is well shown in the following
shipping figures for ports of Palestine:



Flag


Number of
Ships
1913


Number of
Ships
1919-20


Tonnage
1913


Tonnage
1919-20


British
Russian
French
Italian
Austrian ' and
Other


307
237
IOI

97
496


97
55
41
99

65


464,674

4 5,987
262,512
170,227

658,302


123,116
27,244
71,904
176,504

67,946




1,238


357


1,961,702


466,714



Currency. The currency in Palestine, formerly Turkish, became
Egyptian at the time of the occupation as the accounts of the
Egyptian Expeditionary Force were kept in that medium. A vast
quantity of British, Australian and Indian silver, however, came
into circulation at fixed rates to supply the deficiency of Egyptian
silver of which a large consignment sent from the London mint for
use in Palestine was sunk by enemy action at sea and a good deal
of gold, chiefly British, came into the country from Arabia where a
large amount of the gold coin paid as subsidy to the king of the
Hejaz passed into circulation. French silver, generally taken at full
value in the larger towns before the war, is now seldom seen, and
Turkish silver and billon money has also nearly disappeared,
although legal tender at fixed rates. Turkish paper was never legal
tender after the occupation.

Weights and measures still vary locally according to immemorial
custom, but the civil administration is taking steps to introduce a
standard system on European lines in order to facilitate trade.

Archaeology. On Aug. 9 1920 the British School of Archaeology
in Jerusalem was opened and participated in the excavations which
were being conducted at Ascalon, with happy results, by the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund. Important discoveries were made also in
the Garden of Gethsemane, where the complete foundations of a
4th-century church were brought to light, and near Tiberias.

The duty of maintaining historical buildings in the Holy City has
been entrusted to the Pro-Jerusalem Society a pan-denominational
body founded by the governor, Mr. Ronald Storrs. At Acre medi-
aeval crypts have been cleared of ddbris, the Tower of Ramleh
has been strengthened and arrangements have been made for a
resumption of the excavations at Tell Hum (Capernaum) by the
Franciscans. Three universities in the United States have agreed
to undertake important archaeological researches, that of Penn-
sylvania at Beisan (Beth Shan), that of Harvard at Samaria and
that of Chicago at Megiddo (for which Mr. John D. Rockefeller,
Jr., gave 860,000). Unauthorized excavations by persons unquali-
fied as archaeologists are forbidden. In the Budget for 1921-2 a
grant of Ei,ooo was made for the conservation of historical monu-
ments, and 750 provided for the redemption of antiquities out of
a total estimate for the Department of Antiquities of 6,500.

(H.P.-G.)

PALGRAVE, SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS (1827-1919),
English banker and economist, was born at Westminster June
ii 1827, the son of Sir Francis Palgrave, the historian (see 20.-
629). He was educated at Charterhouse and entered Barclay's
Bank at Yarmouth. There he rose to a position of such impor-
tance that in 1875 he was one of three representatives of the
English issuing country bankers chosen to give evidence before
the select committee of the House of Commons on Banks of
Issue. He edited the Economist from 1877 to 1883, and pub-
lished many works on banking, as well as The Local Taxation of

1 Much tonnage formerly Austrian was in 1921 Italian.



Great Britain and Ireland (1871). He also edited the Dictionary
of Political Economy (1894-1906). He was knighted in 1909.
He died at Bournemouth Jan. 25 1919.

PALLES, CHRISTOPHER (1831-1920), Irish lawyer, last chief
baron of the Irish Court of Exchequer, was born Dec. 25 1831.
He was educated at Clongowes Wood school, and Trinity
College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1852. He was called to
the Irish bar in 1853, and became a Q.C. in 1865. In 1872 he
became a solicitor-general for Ireland, and from 1872 was
attorney-general. In 1874 he was made chief baron of the Court
of Exchequer. The Exchequer division was in 1898 merged in
the Queen's Bench division of the Irish High Court of Justice,
and the chief baron from that time sat as one of the judges of
the Queen's Bench division, and also as a judge of appeal.
Palles retired from the bench at an advanced age in 1916. He
was a great lawyer, of remarkably wide learning and power of
argument. He died in Dublin Feb. 14 1920.

PALMER, ALEXANDER MITCHELL (1872- ), American
politician, was born of Quaker parentage at Moosehead, Pa.,
May 4 1872. After graduating from Swarthmore College in 1891
and admission to the bar in 1893 he practised law at Strouds-
burg, Pa. He was a member of Congress from 1909 to 1915,
was then appointed judge of the U.S. Court of Claims, but re-
signed four months later. In 1912 and 1916 he was a delegate-at-
large from Pennsylvania to the Democratic National Conven-
tion, and from 1912 a member of the executive committee of
the Democratic National Committee. At the convention of
1912 he was " floor leader " of the Wilson supporters, and the
next year declined the post of Secretary of War in President
Wilson's Cabinet. In 1917 he was appointed alien property
custodian under the " Trading with the Enemy Act," and
within 1 8 months was administering 32,000 trusts, valued at
$503,000,000. In March 1919 he was appointed to the President's
Cabinet as Attorney-General. The Senate refused to confirm
the appointment until his record as alien property custodian
had been investigated, on the ground that he had made his
office a " political machine." It was furthermore charged that
he was in contempt of the Senate in having failed to submit on
request a complete report of the management of his office. A
filibuster at the end of the 65th Congress caused the Senate to
adjourn without confirming the appointment, but the President
made him a " recess " appointee. Not until Aug. 30 1919 did
the Senate Judiciary Committee hand in its report recommend-
ing the appointment. This was followed by confirmation. His
career as Attorney-General was widely, and it was generally felt
justly, criticized by the public at large and by competent legal
authorities as being both arbitrary and inefficient. At the
Democratic National Convention in 1920 he had strong support
for the presidential nomination, standing second on the first six
ballots. After a prolonged deadlock, extending through 38
ballots, he released his delegates, who swung to James M. Cox,
nominated on the 44th ballot.

PALMER, SIR WALTER, IST BART. (1858-1910), English
manufacturer, was born at Reading Feb. 4 1858. He was the
son of George Palmer (see 20.644), founder of the firm of Huntley
& Palmer, biscuit manufacturers, of Reading, and was educated
at University College, London, and also at the Sorbonne,
Paris. He became a director of the firm and was also the first
chairman of University College, Reading. He sat in the House
of Commons for Salisbury during 1900-6. In 1904 he was created
a baronet, and he died at Newbury April 16 1910. His elder
brother, GEORGE WILLIAM PALMER (1851-1913), was chairman
of the firm and sat in the House of Commons for Reading from
1892 to 1895 and from 1898 to 1904. He was made a privy
councillor in 1906. He died near Newbury Oct. 8 1913.

PANAMA (see 20.664). The pop. of the South American
republic of Panama at the end of 1911 was estimated at 336,742
for the area exclusive of the Canal Zone. The latter contained
in that year 71,682 persons, the number decreasing to 31,048 in
1916 and to 21,707 in 1918. In the estimate made in 1911, whites
and mestizos, those of mixed blood, numbered 238,200, and ne-
groes and Indians 96,600. Foreigners included 3,500 Chinese



22



PANAMA CANAL



and 55,000 British subjects from Caribbean islands. The cities of
Panama and Colon in 1917 contained 61,369 and 26,076 inhab-
itants respectively; the estimated total pop. then being 401,554.
A general census taken in 1920 gave a total pop. of 434,015.

Vital statistics for 1916, 1917 and 1918 showed respectively 11,593,
10,898, and 11,283 births, of which in each year respectively 7,827,
7,511 and 7,700 were illegitimate. Deaths in the same years num-
bered 6,218, 6,107 and 5,649 respectively. There are eight provinces,
Herrera having been added in 1915. The area as determined by the
White boundary award is 87,480 sq. km. (33,776 sq. miles).

In 1917 there were 398 Government-supported schools with an
enrolment of 22,000, besides 1,721 pupils in Canal Zone schools. The
Instituto Nacional, dedicated in 1911 with handsome buildings at
Panama costing $1,500,000, gives instruction in high-school subjects,
commerce and languages. A school of Law and Political Science
offers a three-year course to graduates of the Instituto. Travelling
scholarships to Europe and the United States are provided by the
Government.

Finance and Economics. Panama receives all the import duties
collected, but the United States imports all canal materials and
supplies for Government use duty free. Panama's revenues and
expenditures 1915-20 were as follows:





Revenues


Expenditures


1915

1916

1917
1918
1919-20


675,057
729,802
793,882
646,752
1,490,385


635,820
1,164,600

732, i-t
707,464
1,490,385 (estimated)



Public finance is managed by a fiscal agent appointed with the
approval ot the United States. For nine months ending in March
1921, revenues received were $4,012,023, and expenditures $2,767,-
146; balance $1,244,877; of this sum $739,349 was set aside for road
construction. The debt, begiw early in 1915 with a loan of $3,000,000
from the United States, chiefly for railway construction, amounted in
1919 to $7,101,000.

Commerce is chiefly with the United States; but that with the
United Kingdom, France, and Spain is important.

The totals for the years 1910-20 were:





Imports


Exports


Kgm.


Balboas *


Kgm.


Balboas*


1910


128,647,313


'0,043,395.11


126,333,609


1,769,330.15


1911


128,331,874


9,896,987.85


165,180,189


2,863,425.30


1912


"5,822,532


9,871,653.73


166,232,433


2,064,647.55


1913


153,057,605


11,060,088.24


187,330,063


5,101,960.45


1914


140,472,718


9,891,552.78


182,625,216


3,800,517.18


1915


126,244,629


9,032,977-I7


152,594.343


3,422,455-10


1916


107,191,027


9,397,596-27


137,438,898


5,706,724.38


1917


82,798,113


9,223,170.00


177,484,046


5,624,176.00


1918


45.085,659


7,821,660.00


150,497,870


2,909,557-00


1919


48,960,768


11,406,880.15


162,476,039


3,757,028.24


1920


59,678,802


17,092,270.35


150,3/0,225


3,640,453.15



*A balboa is worth a dollar.

About 80% of the exports go to the United States. The chief
articles are bananas, coconuts, hides, tortoise shell, cacao and lagua
(vegetable ivory). All international commerce moves through Cris-
tobal and Balboa, Bocas del Toro being reserved for local business.
The Panama railway across the Isthmus, 47 m. long, is U.S. property.
The United Fruit Co. has 150 m. of banana railway in Bocas del
Toro province, running to Limon in Costa Rica. Only a small part
of the territory is occupied, and little is under cultivation. The only
highly organized industry is the banana business of the United Fruit
Co., which exports over $2,000,000 worth of bananas yearly. In
1906 cattle numbered 65,000; in 1916, 200,000; there were then also
15,000 horses, 2,000 mules, 30,000 hogs, and 5,000 goats. Coffee
grows in Chiriqui province, and in Code province a concern of Ger-
man origin has raised cacao, coffee and rubber since 1895. Tobacco
and sugar are increasing; the first sugar exported to the United
States was in 1920. Other crops are corn, rice, yams and ivory nuts.
The tropical woods of the forests are exported, as are medicinal
plants. The pearl fisheries are famous. Metals are scantily repre-
sented. The Sinclair Oil Corp. of New York has concessions on
Columbus I., and has drilled wells at Bocas del Toro.

History. The successful candidate of 1908 for the four-year
presidential term, Domingo de Obaldia, died in 1910, and Pablo
Arosemena completed his term. In 1912 Belisario Porras, a
Liberal, was elected. Ramon M. Valdez was elected in June 1916
amid riots and intervention by the United States. He died in
1918, and Giro L. Urriola completed his term. Ernesto Lefevre
was inaugurated Jan. 30 1920, but Belisario Porras soon succeeded
him, being elected in Aug. of the same year, and inaugurated
Nov. i for a four-year term. There are three vice-presidents
(designados) , and a Cabinet of five members. The constitution



was amended Dec. 26 1918 so as to provide for a Chamber of 33
members, one for each 10,000 inhabitants. The president is
chosen by direct vote, and is ineligible to succeed himself. Be-
ginning in 1924 deputies of the Chamber are to be chosen by
direct vote. Provincial governors became elective in 1920.
Capital punishment is prohibited. Foreigners may not mingle
in politics, and may be ejected for criticizing public officers or
institutions. The independence of the republic was recognized
by Colombia April 6 1914 by a treaty between the latter and the
United States, ratified by Colombia in the same year and by
the U.S. Senate April 20 1921. Panama ratified the Treaty of
Versailles Jan. 8 1920, and is an original member of the League
of Nations.

Boundary Dispute. The constitution of Colombia of 1886
declared that its boundary with Costa Rica should be that which
had existed between the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada and the
captaincy-general of Guatemala in 1810, but that boundary lines
might be located by treaties which might be negotiated without
reference to the uti possidetis of that year. Colombia and Costa
Rica endeavoured, by treaties negotiated in 1825, 1856, 1865 and
1876, to fix the line without success. In 1876 arbitration was
agreed on, and Alfonso XII., King of Spain, was asked in 1880
to make an award, but he died before doing so. It was agreed in
a treaty of Dec. 25 1880 that the arbitral award must lie within
the specified limits of the conflicting claims. This provision was
included in a treaty made at Paris dated Jan. 20 1886, and in
another made at Bogota on Nov. 4 1896. Under the last-named
instrument, President Loubet of France rendered on Sept. n
1900 an arbitral award which was accepted by Colombia and
Costa Rica as final. Its demarcations were in general terms.

The state of Panama, which had been created by Nueva
Granada in 1855 and made a department of Colombia in 1886,
became independent on Nov. 3 1904, at which time it inherited
the boundary controversy with Costa Rica. The Loubet line