ers and others, who have to work in the front line but are not
armed with the normal battle weapon. For these, first an
increase in the capacity of the pistol magazine was tried, and
later an altogether new class of weapon was designed the
machine-pistol, which is a fully automatic arm of the carbine or
long pistol kind, capable of firing pistol ammunition as fast as a
heavy machine-gun fires rifle calibre ammunition. Such weap-
ons may also usefully replace the light machine-gun itself in
certain conditions, e.g. bush or mountain-warfare. Some exam-
ples of this new class of arm are described below.
As to whether the semi-automatic rifle that is, the military
rifle fitted with self-loading mechanism but fired by the trigger
shot for shot will become a universal infantry weapon, opinions
differ. On the whole, it seems unlikely that it will do so. On
the one hand, for group action the light machine-gun or per-
fected automatic rifle is definitely superior in accuracy, volume,
and control of fire to an equivalent number of semi-automatic
rifles in individual hands, whatever the discipline and team
work of the individuals. On the other hand, as a personal
armament for fighting at close quarters the new machine-pistol
is superior in intensity of fire and at least equal in handiness.
The semi-automatic rifle may develop as a weapon for sniping
and skirmishing, and as the soldier's personal armament in
theatres of war where the country is very open and troops are
required to do a good deal of individual patrolling and stalking.
Of these services, however, all except sniping can be performed
by the machine-pistol; and, in sum, the semi-automatic rifle
seems likely as a military arm to become a sniper's rifle pure
and simple the military analogue of the sporting rifle, for
which the semi-automatic principle is already well established.
Speculation as to the nature of the cavalry firearm of the
future is now difficult, depending as it does on the tactical ques-
tion of how far dispersion will be carried in the dismounted fire
fight. (C. F. A.)
PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENTS
The improvement of the rifle has been confined mainly to the
development of auto-loading, or semi-automatic, rifles for both
military and sporting purposes, and the development of the
automatic or machine-rifle for military purposes.
The semi-automatic shoulder-rifle has become an efficient
and reliable weapon for sporting purposes, but no military
weapon of this type has been adopted by any of the leading
powers to replace the bolt-action shoulder-rifle, although some
fairly successful weapons have been produced. The principal
difficulty in the way of perfection of an arm of this type is the
weight limitation. The present bolt-action rifles are considered
by many designers to be as light as is consistent with the pres-
sures obtained with modern powders, and the automatic action
can only be obtained through additional parts, and consequently
additional weight. Successful automatic rifles of 12-20 Ib.
weight have indeed been produced. Such rifles are somewhat
less heavy than the light machine-gun, the latter being defined as
an automatic, rifle-calibre weapon, with a tripod as muzzle
support weighing from 20 to 30 Ib. complete, and it is possible
that further developments in the type may lead to its superseding
the light machine-gun as above defined.
Bolt-Action Military Rifles. It has already been noted that
no important progress was made in the design of the bolt-action
rifle during the World War. Quite apart from the manufactur-
ing difficulties attending upon an alteration of model in the
midst of a great crisis, and setting aside also the changes in the
tactical relations of rifle, gun and machine-gun in the war, the
rifles used by the various belligerents were so nearly equivalent
that no one possessed any advantage over the rest which could
not be compensated for by slightly better training or slightly
higher moral on the other side. And not only was the invention
of necessity wanting, but also the conventional type of rifle had
reached a point of development beyond which it was difficult
to see possibilities of radical improvement.
Substantially, then, the rifles in use at the end of the war
were the same as those in use at its beginning, and this is the
less surprising as many peace-time criticisms levelled at one or
another model proved to be useless, or practically unimportant,
in war. Thus, rifles looked upon as obsolete revealed unsus-
pected good qualities in the severe test of war service, and modern
rifles failed to show the superiority expected. The German
Mauser had been popularly credited with being the best military
shoulder arm; while the British short Lee-Enfield had been
severely criticized on the score of its weak body and poorly
designed bolt. Yet, under service conditions, the performance of
the latter was excellent; the simple action, good balance, and
rapidity with which it could be worked compensating for the
superior ballistic qualities of the German arm. Similarly, the
French Lebel, one of the oldest service rifles (1886-93), has been
looked upon as being outclassed by modern arms, it being the
only military rifle with a tubular magazine; yet this rifle with
the " Balle D " cartridge has greater velocity and greater strik-
ing power at ranges in excess of 800 yd. than the American
Springfield, which has 360 f.s. greater initial velocity. In only
one instance, apparently, did a rifle prove so unsuitable that it
was withdrawn from use. The Ross rifle, the original arm of the
Canadian forces, while a good sporting and target rifle, proved
unsatisfactory in the mud and dirt of trench fighting.
Another factor which tended to stabilize the rifle in its existing
form was the interchangeability of rifle and machine-gun ammu-
nition. Before the war there was a distinct tendency towards
reducing the calibre of the rifle and employing a lighter bullet,
in order to obtain flatness of trajectory at ranges within about
800 yards. But the modern light-weight high-velocity bullet
2 7 8
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
loses its velocity very rapidly, which renders it less suitable
than a heavier bullet for employment in machine-gun work,
where effectiveness at long range is required. So long, therefore,
as the ammunition of rifles and machine-guns remains interchange-
able it is probable that no further reductions of calibre and
bullet weight will take place. At the same time, the develop-
ment of the heavy machine-gun itself may quite possibly call
for not merely the retention of the present common calibre but
an actual increase of calibre beyond what is admissible for the
rifle. The principle of interchangeable ammunition has recently
been questioned by some experts who would prefer that each
class of weapon should be free to develop along its own lines;
and already experiments have been carried out in the United
States, not indeed with two calibre, but with two bullet weights,
a bullet of 180 grains being designed for the machine-gun (and
for occasional use for special purposes in the rifle) while the
old bullet of 1 50 grains is retained for the shoulder weapon.
The only new model service bolt-action rifle produced by
belligerents during the war on a large scale was the British rifle,
303, pattern 1914, which was later adapted to -30 U.S. ammuni-
tion and manufactured for the United States; about 2,500,00x5
rifles of this type being produced in that country during the
eighteen months preceding the Armistice.
British Riflss of the War Period. Before the war, the British
service rifle, the short Lee-Enfield of -303-^. calibre, had been
subjected to a good deal of criticism, and the War Office, after
much experimenting with various types of cartridges, found that
it was not possible to obtain as high a velocity with this rifle as
was desired. An improvement was effected, however, in the
adoption of the Mark VII. ammunition, the pointed bullet of
which weighs 174 grains instead of 215 grains as in the Mark VI.,
the muzzle velocity being 2,440 f.s., with a chamber pressure of
45,000 Ib. This ammunition, however, did not give the ballistic
qualities desired and the design of a new rifle was taken up. A
rifle was finally evolved with a bore -276 in. in diameter, and
chambered for a rimless cartridge, giving a muzzle velocity of
about 2,800 f.s., and a chamber pressure of 51,000 Ib., and it
is probable that this model would have been further perfected
and adopted but for the beginning of the war. Military con-
siderations then prevented its adoption in its original form, and
it was modified to take the existing Mark VII. -303 ammunition,
and manufactured in the United States as the " British Rifle,
Pattern 1914." The short magazine Lee-Enfield with Mark
VII. ammunition, however, remained the standard British arm
throughout the war; though the new rifle was also used.
Upon the entrance of the United States into the conflict,
as a number of American factories were equipped to manufacture
this rifle, it was again modified to accommodate the U.S. service
ammunition and used as a substitute for the calibre -30, model
of 1903 (Springfield), under the name of the " U.S. Rifle Model
of 1917." As chambered and bored for the U.S. ammunition,
the rifle had approximately the same ballistic qualities as the
Springfield. The British and American models of this rifle are
the same in their essential features, except that the latter has
not the long-range (dial and aperture) sights of British rifles. A
remarkable feature common to both rifles is the position of
the rear sight between two protecting lugs on the bridge of
the receiver. This position of the rear sight gives a distance
from back sight and fore sight of 31-76 in., that is, almost exactly
over the trigger instead of in the customary position, a hand's
breadth or more in front of the magazine. Further details will
be found in the article SIGHTS. The length of the rifle overall
is 46-3 inches. The weight without bayonet is 9 Ib., 3 oz.; the
sword bayonet is about 22 in. long (blade 17 in.) and weighs
15 oz. The magazine holds five cartridges which are loaded
from a clip. The bore has five grooves, left-hand uniform
twist, one turn in 10 inches.
The action of this rifle is as follows (figs. I and 2). The cycle of
operations is assumed to start with the extraction of a' fired cartridge
case. The bolt handle is raised and the cocking piece forced to the
rear in the bolt by the half-cocking cam. This also withdraws the
striker into the bolt. When the locking lugs on the bolt are clear
the extracting cams on the bolt and receiver engage and the continued
rotation of the bolt retracts the latter and loosens and partly with-
draws the cartridge case (primary extraction), the extractor and
sleeve being prevented from turning by the receiver. When the limit
of the turning movement in the bolt is reached, it is drawn to the rear,
withdrawing the empty cartridge case; during this movement the
cocking piece rides over the sear nose and depresses it ; the safety
stud rises in the clearance cut in the bolt. When the cocking piece
clears the sear nose, the sear spring returns the sear to normal posi-
tion. The slotted locking lug (left hand) of the bolt now reaches the
ejector, the latter protruding in the slot sufficiently to strike the rear
of the empty case and eject it to the right. After a further slight
backward movement the bolt lug comes in contact with the bolt
stop, preventing further movement. If the magazine is now empty
the follower rises and its rib prevents the closing of the bolt. If not,
the magazine spring has pushed another cartridge up and into the
path of the bolt, the forward movement of which forces it forward
and up over the cartridge ramp.
During the early part of the closing movement of the bolt, the
ejector is pushed outward by the bolt. Later, the sear notch in the
cocking piece engages the sear nose, and is arrested. The bolt then
slides forward over the striker, further compressing the main spring.
When the rotation of the bolt by the handle begins, the locking
lugs engage the locking cams, and force the bolt home, seating the
cartridge, and further compressing the main spring. The rotation
of the bolt restores the half cocking cam, so that it is out of the path
of fall of the cocking-piece lug.
The bolt is now locked, the mainspring is fully compressed, and
the cocking piece is held by the sear nose.
When the trigger is squeezed, the bearing of the trigger first acts
on the bearing of the receiver, slowly depressing the sear nose. Then
the heel of the trigger engages the receiver, and completes the de-
pression of the sear nose, which ends in the release of the cocking
piece by the sear nose. The striker is then acted upon by the main-
spring, and, striking the primer of the cartridge, detonates the same.
FIGS, i and 2. British Rifle (Pattern '14) U.S. Model of 1917.
During the depression of the sear nose, the safety stud rises through
the hole in the bottom of the well and enters the interlock slot in the
bolt. If the bolt is not fully locked, the interlock slot will not register
with the safety stud, and the trigger cannot be pulled.
United States. When the United States entered the war its
standard rifle was the " U.S. Rifle, Model of 1903 " (Spring-
field). There were only about 600,000 of these on hand, and
very limited possibilities of immediate expansion. To obviate
delay, therefore, it was decided, as above mentioned, to adopt
the British Pattern '14 rifle which had been manufactured in the
United States in large quantities. This rifle, modified as pre-
viously noted, was used very successfully by a large portion of
the U.S. troops; only the regular army and part of the National
Guard continuing to use the Springfield. The Springfield, how-
ever, is still (1921) the official arm, the 1917 rifles having been
withdrawn after the Armistice.
Other Nations. The Lebel magazine rifle, calibre 8 mm.,
model of 1886-93, is still the standard arm of the French infantry.
The magazine is tubular, lies under the barrel, and holds eight
cartridges which are loaded singly. The carbine, model of 1890,
and the rifle, model of 1907-15, were also used to a considerable
extent. These are magazine rifles, having a one-piece stock and
a bolt with a turning head. They are loaded with a charger
containing three cartridges. A box magazine was later designed
for these rifles, increasing the capacity to five cartridges. Several
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
279
other types were used by the French, many of the old single-
loading " Gras " rifles of the 1874 model being adapted. 1
Mauser rifles in different calibres were used by Germany, Turkey,
China, Portugal, Serbia and Brazil? The Japanese " Arisaka,"
or "38th Year," also has a Mauser action. Many of these
rifles were purchased from Japan by Russia early in the World
War and also by Great Britain for training purposes. It was
reported that since the Armistice Japan has increased the calibre
both in new rifles and in the existing stock from 6-5 mm. (256)
to 7 mm., the reason given for the change being that the 6-5-mm.
bullet is too small to develop sufficient wounding power. This
calibre is used by several other nations and is the smallest
used in military rifles. The change is interesting, since the ten-
dency had been towards reduction of calibre.
The standard arm of the Russian infantry is the " Three line "
magazine rifle, 7-62-mm. (-3-in.) calibre. A new type of ammu-
nition has been adopted for this rifle, having a pointed bullet
weighing 148 grains and giving 2,820 f.s. velocity with 50,000
Ib. pressure. The Russian Government also bought large quanti-
ties of Winchester, model of 1895, magazine rifles of the same
calibre, the only lever-action magazine-rifle used in the war.
Austria-Hungary used the 8-mm. Mannlicher, " Straight
Pull " rifle, model 1895, and carbine. Mannlicher type rifles
were also used by Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania and Greece. The
Belgians used the magazine rifle, calibre 7-65 mm., model of
1889, which has a Mauser action. The latest ammunition for
this rifle has a pointed bullet weighing 1 54 grains with a velocity
of about 2,740 f.s. The Swiss Schmidt-Rubin rifle has been
redesigned to chamber a new rimless cartridge having a 170-
grain streamline bullet with a velocity of 2,660 f.s.
SPECIAL BOLT-ACTION RIFLES
Snipers' Rifles. Several types of rifles have been developed by
the various Powers for the use of " snipers," whose function it is
to pick off with single shots individual scouts, officers, men of working
parties, enemy snipers, etc. Snipers work as a rule in pairs wherever
feasible, one acting as an observer, the other as a rifleman. The rifle
used for this purpose is usually a very carefully selected specimen
of the standard service rifle, fitted with telescopic sights of low power,
or some other variety of optical sights, though plain sights are some-
times used. The British snipers used the short Lee-Enfield rifle with
various forms of telescopic and other optical sights, and also the 1914
rifle with a special back sight. The U. S. rifle is fitted with a Warner
and Swasey telescopic sight, 6-power, 4^ field, which is attached to
the standard rifle by side brackets, but this combination is not en-
tirely satisfactory and a new telescope and method of mounting
are being developed. The German sniper's rifle was the standard
Mauser with brackets fastened by screws to the top of the magazine
to take aCoerz, Luxor, or Zeiss telescope, generally of 2f or 3 power.
The mounting of the telescope over the bolt and magazine makes it
necessary to use the rifle as a single-loader and prevents the use of
the regular sights while the telescope is attached. This method is,
however, preferred by riflemen as aim may be taken with the cheek
against the stock in the usual manner; the superior accuracy ob-
tained offsetting these disadvantages. In the German sniper's rifle
the telescope can be very quickly removed from its brackets and
the rifle used the ordinary way.
'The German infantry throughout the war carried the 1898 pat-
tern Mauser (7-9 mm.). The cavalry carbine of the same pattern and
calibre was also occasionally used by infantry as well as by cavalry
serving dismounted in the trenches, and by the personnel of light
machine-gun squads. During the trench-warfare period of the war,
spare magazines holding 25 cartridges were designed for attachment
to the underside of the ordinary magazine, in order to obtain an in-
creased volume of fire for emergencies ; these were, however, clumsy
and unpopular with the troops, and were not generally used. The
only important modification of the standard arm was the introduc-
tion in summer 1915 of a short rifle (43-5 in.) known as the Erfurt
rifle. This has the same trench action, calibre, and magazine as the
1888 rifle, and, apart from the reduced length, differs from it only in
having the sliding parts of the breech covered by a dustproof
metal casing, the barrel cased in wood (as in the British and other
short rifles) and the muzzle filled with a flash-reducing attachment.
The bolt-handle is curved down close to the stock. This weapon was
only issued for service in the last months of the war, but seems to have
been retained as a standard weapon in the post-war army and police.
Troops of older categories employed in garrison and line of commu-
nication duties had the old magazine rifle of 1888 (7'9-mm. calibre).
3 The new Brazilian 7-mm. ammunition has the highest muzzle-
velocity of any military small-arms ammunition, although several
of the new cartridges closely approach it.
Periscopic Rifle Holders or " Sniperscopes " have been designed
and used with some success, although it cannot be said that these
devices were ever popular or capable of very accurate or rapid fire.
The tendency when using them is to shoot high and they are only
reasonably accurate at ranges up to 200 yards. In the instrument
developed by the Munition Invention Department of the British Gov-
ernment (fig. 3) the periscope (aa) and shoulder piece (c) are rigidly
combined with each other and with a shoe (d) which takes the butt
of the rifle. A trigger on the shoulder piece is connected to the rifle
trigger by a cord (eee). Pivoted to the right side of the shoe is a
system of levers (bbb) which enables the firer to open and close the
bolt by means of a handle close to his right hand. The periscope
itself is a simple mirror-periscope.
FIG. 3. Periscopic Rifle Holder (British Type).
Anti-tank Rifle. The German anti-tank rifle (fig. 4) is a single-
shot calibre 13-mm. Mauser action rifle brought out as an emergency
weapon 3 and intended to serve as a stop-gap pending the construc-
tion of a 13-mm. machine-gun. The weapon is intended for short-
range work only, as the sights are graduated to only 500 metres.
It is very heavy (37 lb.)and has a total length of nearly 66 in., the
barrel being 39 in. long. It is provided with a bipod. The bullet,
which weighs 801 grains, is pointed and armour-piercing, has an
initial velocity of about 2,450 f.s., and a penetration of 20 millimetres
in the best steel is claimed at a range of 500 yards. It is, however,
very heavy for a portable arm, and, being a single-shot weapon, it
has a very slow rate of fire. On account of the heating of the barrel
and the heavy recoil, the fire cannot be sustained for more than 20
shots at a time. Each rifle was served by two men, carrying 124
cartridges as well as the rifle and accessories and their personal
armament. The rifles were used in squads of three rifles, or singly, or
in cooperation with heavy machine-guns using armour-piercing
bullets, according to circumstances. The Germans had a high regard
for this weapon.
FIG. 4. German Anti-Tank Rifle.
High-power Rifles. Sporting rifles with an initial velocity of 3,000
f.s., or slightly more, are now in use. These rifles have no particular
feature except the additional strength necessary to withstand high
pressures. The so-called " explosive " effect of nigh-velocity bullets
upon striking make them extremely effective for sporting purposes.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC RlFLES
As already mentioned, efforts are being made to produce a semi-
automatic shoulder-rifle to replace the bolt-action rifle. The success-
ful sporting weapons of this type which have been devised are not
considered suitable for military use, as the powder pressures and
velocities obtained from their cartridges are much below those ob-
tained with military ammunition. Sporting rifles are not subjected
to the severe conditions that are usually encountered by the military
3 The order for a design was given in Dec. 1917 and in spite of the
manufacturing difficulties which naturally presented themselves with
an arm of such unusual proportions, the Mauser works were able to
begin quantity supply in April 1918 (Schwarte, Technik im Welt-
kriege, p. 21). (C. F. A.)
280
RIFLES AND LIGHT MACHINE-GUNS
arm; the sportsman seldom fires more than three or four shots in
quick succession and is usually in a position to give the self-loading
rifle the care which its more complicated mechanism requires.
The principal requirements in a semi-automatic rifle are that
the rifle shall not weigh more than nine or ten pounds, and shall
have a simple mechanism which will stand the shock of service
ammunition and the wear and tear of campaigning. The weapon
must be capable of being used either automatically or by hand as an
ordinary rifle, and for the rest must possess all the qualities now
demanded of a good bolt-action rifle. The automatic action, there-
fore, is not considered a substitute for any of the qualities of the
present shoulder-rifle. No semi-automatic weapon so far designed has
fulfilled these conditions to such a degree that it has been adopted in
place of the bolt-action rifle. The Mondragon, a Mexican invention,
has, however, been used by the Mexican Government to some extent,
and in a modified form. A modification of this weapon was also used
by Germany in the war, notably for the armament of aeroplanes. Two
French models, the St. tienne and the " Carabine Meunier," were
brought out toward the close of the war, but not extensively used.
FIG. 5. Winchester Auto-Loading Rifle.
The U.S. Ordnance Department recently (1920) held competitive
tests, and further developments and tests have been made.
The principal advantages expected from the semi-automatic
rifles are : increased rapidity of fire, less physical labour on the part