tain number of children free. Secondary instruction is cared for
in public lycees and in many private establishments. There is no
university, but the capital possesses higher faculties of law, medicine
and engineering, besides schools providing instruction in pharmacy,
dentistry, commerce, music, dramatics and the fine arts. The na-
tional Government also maintains a naval academy, a military col-
lege and a preparatory school of tactics. The most important li-
braries are: the National library, the best appointed in S. America;
the Municipal ; the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura ; that of the Lycfe
of Arts and Crafts; and the collections existing in the various minis-
tries and departments.

Streets and Buildings. During the decade 1910-20 the ambitious
programme of municipal improvements inaugurated in 1903 was in
large measure completed. The port works, including a sea-wall over
2 m. long, 8 ft. above mean high-tide, and lying almost entirely in
deep-water, enclosing a broad reach of reclaimed land between it
and the former shore-line, provide the city with the most modern
facilities for loading and unloading ships. The Avenida Rio Branco



(formerly Avenida Central), built through the heart of the city in
1904, is now one of the handsomest thoroughfares in the western
hemisphere. Over a mile long from N. to S., it is lined with fine
private and public buildings. The military, naval and jockey clubs
are situated there, and also the offices of some of the principal news-
papers, such as the Jornal do Comercio and O Paiz, besides many
fashionable shops, caf<Ss and business places. At the southern end
is a group of elegant State edifices, the Municipal theatre, the
Monroe palace, and the National library and Academy of Fine Arts.
It is adorned with three rows of trees, and with broad sidewalks
of white and black stone set to form figures in mosaic, as in Lisbon.
For this both material and workmen were imported from Portugal.
The Municipal theatre, designed in 1904, cost over 2,000,000, al-
though it seats but 1,700 people. The building which houses the
National library, opened in 1910 in commemoration of the centenary
of its founding (1808), is also a notable addition to the city. It is a
fireproof structure of granite, marble and steel, equipped with every
modern library appliance.

One of the important developments of Rio de Janeiro has been
in suburban road-building. As the hills come practically to the bay
and sea, construction is difficult, but great progress has been made
and a 4O-m. motor drive over perfect roads is now joining all the
famous beaches with Tijuca and the city. The magnificent bayside
drive, the Avenida Beira-Mar, with its double motor track and
intervening lawns and gardens, is particularly remarkable.

Sanitation. The city, formerly a hotbed of yellow fever and
smallpox, has become one of the healthiest tropical cities in the
world. The death-rate has fallen to about 20 per 1,000. This is the
result of a campaign of scrupulous cleanliness, rigid enforcement of
sanitary measures and scientific eradication of mosquitos and
other germ-bearing insects, inaugurated under the direction of the
celebrated Brazilian scientist, Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, in the first admin-
istration of President Rodrigues Alves (1903). In 1920 a law was
passed by Congress creating a national department of public health,
consisting of three divisions, one in charge of the federal capital.

(C. H. H.)

RIO DE ORO (see 23.357). The area of the Spanish Sahara
denned and extended by the Franco-Spanish Conventions of
1904 and 1912 is about 110,000 sq. miles. The frontiers have
not been delimited. The colony proper (area, about 65,500 sq.
m.) extends from lat. 2i2o' N. to 26 N. The 1904 Agreement
recognized a Spanish Protectorate over an area on the N. of
about 34,700 sq. m., extending to lat. 274o' N. and bounded E.
by the meridian 84o' W.; and the 1912 Agreement acknowledged
the sovereign rights of Spain over this region. Still farther N.
is an " occupied territory " of about 9,800 sq. m., extending to
Wad Draa (lat. 284s' N.), and forming an intermediate zone
between the Spanish possessions and Morocco.

The interior has been little explored. A central volcanic table-
land, the Tiris, about 1,000 ft. above sea-level, falls by terraces
broken by ravines to the coastal plain and to the Segiet el Hamra on
the north. To the S., the vast dunes of Azefal separate the Spanish
Sahara from Mauretania (see 17.908). Wad Shebika enters the sea
about 36 m. S.W. of Wad Draa and runs parallel to its lower course.
The only permanent water is in brackish wells which frequently
become choked. The only district likely to repay colonization ap-
pears to be the wide basin of the Segiet el Hamra and its tributaries,
whose flood-waters suffice to fertilize pasture and arable land or
date-groves, as at the oasis of Smara.

There are few main tracks and a network of smaller tracks, but
no roads and but few villages. Smara, 160 km. inland from C. Juby,
is the most important settlement and is the headquarters of the
notorious religious agitators Ma el 'Ainin and his son El Hiba. Vil
Cisneros, on the Dakhla peninsula, the residence of the governor
(deputy for the governor-general of the Canaries), has a garrison
and fish-curing industry; pop. (1918) 529 foreigners and 495 na-
tives, with an adjoining village of 800 negroid half-castes (Imragen).
The desert population, roughly estimated at 80,000, is nomadic,
fluctuating between French and Spanish territory, and is split up
into pro-French and pro-Spanish partisans. In 1912, there was a
general rising under LI Hiba. In 1916, a small Spanish expedition
occupied C. Juby, but the fishermen, of whom the chief are the
Aulad Delim Arabs and their allies the Regeibat (Arabized Berbers),
remained practically uncontrolled. Camels and ostriches are reared.

In 1916 the total value of imports by sea was 4,820; of exports
4,910, chiefly fish and fish products. The fishing industry would
be considerable if better methods were employed. There are open
roadsteads at El Msit, at the mouth of the Segiet el Hamra, and
Tarfaya, about iSokm. farther north. The climate is fairly equable
on the coast, but intense heat and drought prevail inland, with di-
urnal variations of temperature in the shade of as much as 74.
At Villa Cisneros the mean maximum summer temperature is 86
F., and the mean minimum winter 48 F. (E. G. S.)

RISLEY, SIR HERBERT HOPE (1851-1911), English anthro-
pologist, was born at Akeley, Bucks., Jan. 4 1851. Educated at



RITCHIE ROBERTSON



287



Winchester and New College, Oxford, he entered the Indian
civil service in 1873 and he had a distinguished career; but his
principal work was done in connexion with Indian ethnography,
the discussion of the caste system, etc., and he published under
Government auspices some important volumes of anthropometric
data. He had charge of the Indian census operations of 1901.
In 1910 he was appointed secretary of the judicial department
of the India Office. He was made K.C.I.E. in 1907, and he
died at Wimbledon Sept. 30 1911.

RITCHIE, ANNE ISABELLA, LADY (1837-1919), English
writer (see 26.716), eldest daughter of W. M. Thackeray, died
at Freshwater, I. of Wight, Feb. 26 1919. She is best remembered
perhaps as the author of Old Kensington (1873). Amongst her
other novels were The Story of Elizabeth (1863) and The Village .
on the Cliff (1865). She also published various volumes of
biographical essays (Madame de SgvignS, 1881, and A Book of
Sibyls, 1883, etc.), and contributed a most interesting series of
prefaces to the Library edition of her father's works, thus supply-
ing a substitute for the regular biography of him that he had
always deprecated. Her husband, SIR RICHMOND THACKERAY
RITCHIE (b. 1854), became permanent Under-Secretary of State
for India in 1910, and died Oct. 12 1912.

RIVIERE, BRITON (1840-1920), English painter (see 23.387),
died in London April 20 1920. His later works include "Aphro-
dite " (1902) and " Hark! Hark! the Lark " (1909), also a por-
trait of Lord Tennyson (1909). His eldest son, HUGH GOLD-
WIN (b. 1869), became a well-known painter; and the second son,
CLIVE (b. 1872), a prominent physician.

RIVINGTON, FRANCIS HANSARD (1834-1913), British pub-
lisher (see 23.387), died July 2 1913.

RIVOIRA, GIOVANNI TERESIO (1840-1919), Italian archae-
ologist, was born at La Manta di Saluzzo in Piedmont Sept. 22
1849. He came of an old Piedmontese family and on his mother's
side was descended from the Riccati (see 23.288), a family of
mathematicians and architects. He took his training as an archi-
tect and engineer at the university of Turin, entered Rome with
the Italian army in 1870 and thenceforth resided there, devoting
his life to travel and to the study of the architecture of the
later Roman Empire. In 1884 he married Edith E. Johnson of
Cheltenham. He published two monumental works, Le Origini
dell' Architettura Lombarda (1901-7, Eng. trans. 1910) and
Architettura Musulmana (1914, Eng. trans. 1919). At the time of
his death in Rome March 3 1919 he was engaged upon a third,
Architettura Romana, which was posthumously published in
Rome (1920) by his widow.

ROBERT-FLEURY, TONY (1837-1911), French painter (see
23.403), died in 1911.

ROBERTS, FREDERICK SLEIGH ROBERTS, EARL (1832-
1914), British field-marshal (see 23.403). Subsequently to 1905
Lord Roberts took an active and leading part, as head of the
National Service League, in the movement in favour of com-
pulsory military service for home defence. On the outbreak of
the World War he was a frequent and welcome visitor at the
War Office, and shortly after the arrival of the two Indian
divisions in France he crossed the Channel to visit them when
the weather was cold and inclement. He was attacked by
pneumonia while at the front, and he died at St. Omer on Nov.
14 1914, the title going by special remainder to his elder daughter,
Aileen Mary. He was buried in St. Paul's.

Lord Roberts was a tried and brilliant commander in the
field. His self-reliance and willingness to accept risks when
planning operations were demonstrated by the daring advance
to Kabul after the massacre of the Cavagnari Mission, and by
his swoop across the Orange Free State from the Modder to
Bloemfontein in Feb. 1900, abandoning his communications.
That instinctive grasp of a tactical situation which stamps the
great captain was displayed by him on many occasions, notably
when he attacked the Afghans on the Peiwar Kotal and at Kanda-
har, and on the occasion of his riding on to the field of Paarde-
berg. His attractive personality and his natural kindliness made
him a most popular chief, and, even if he hardly ranked as a
military administrator of the very foremost class, his steward-



ship in the high offices that he filled in India and at home was
advantageous to the army and to the State. An eminently
knightly figure, Lord Roberts was a fine horseman, a great gentle-
man, an ardent patriot and a devout Christian.

ROBERTS, GEORGE HENRY (1869- ), English Labour
politician, was born at Chedgrave, Norfolk, July 27 1869. His
parents removed to Norwich where he attended an elementary
school and evening classes. In 1883 he was apprenticed to the
trade of printer and compositor. At the expiration of appren-
ticeship he went to London and joined the London Society of
Compositors. After a year he returned to Norwich and identified
himself with the movement to organize local printers in a branch
of the Typographical Association, of which he became president
and ultimately secretary. He also became president of the
Norwich and District Trades and Labour Council. He was
elected to the Norwich School Board in 1899, being the first
candidate run by the local Labour party to win a seat on a public
body. In 1904 he was elected to the post of national organizer of
the Typographical Association and was chosen as its parliamen-
tary representative. He was returned as one of the members for
Norwich at the general election of 1906, and has held the seat
since. He was whip of the parliamentary Labour party for
about eight years and a member of the executive council of the
party. When the Labour party joined the Coalition movement
in 1915 he became a Lord Commissioner of the Treasury; he was
parliamentary secretary to the Board of Trade 1916-7; Minister
of Labour, 1917-8; Food Controller, Jan. 1919. He resigned from
the Government Feb. 1920.

ROBERTS, JOHN (1847-1919), English billiard-player, was
born at Ardwick, Manchester, Aug. 15 1847, the son of John
Roberts, also a great player of billiards. Details of the exploits
both of father and son are given in 3.937. John Roberts, jun.,
died at Worthing Dec. 23 1919.

ROBERTSON, SIR GEORGE SCOTT (1852-1916), British sol-
dier and administrator, was born in London Oct. 22 1852. He
was educated at Westminster hospital medical school, and in
1878 entered the Indian medical service. He served through the
Afghan War of 1879-80, and in 1888 was attached to the Indian
Foreign Office, being employed as agency surgeon in Gilgit, on
trie frontier of Kashmir. In 1890-1 he travelled in Kafiristan
(see 15.630). In 1893 he went as political agent to Chitral, and
in 1895 was besieged there by hostile tribesmen (see 6.252).
For his services he was created K. C.S.I., and appointed British
agent in Gilgit. He retired from the Indian service in 1899 and
returned to England. He unsuccessfully contested Stirlingshire
in the Liberal interest in 1900, but was elected for Central Brad-
ford in 1906. He died Jan. i 1916.

ROBERTSON, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT, BART. (1850- ),
British field-marshal, was born, of poor parentage, in Lines.
Sept. 14 1859. He enlisted as a private in the i6th Lancers in
1877 and served in the ranks of that regiment until 1888, when
he won a commission in the 3rd Dragoon Guards, then in India.
On joining he eagerly studied his profession in all its branches
and he was very successful in learning the native languages. He
was selected to be railway staff officer in the Miranzai and Black
Mountain operations of 1891, and in the following year he joined
the intelligence department at Simla ; while on its staff he carried
out a reconnaissance to the Pamirs, and in 1895 served with the
Chitral Relief Force, being wounded and receiving the D.S.O.
He passed through the Staff College in 1897-8 the first officer
risen from the ranks to do so and then, after a few months at
the War Office, went out to S. Africa on the intelligence staff; he
accompanied Lord Roberts on his advance from Cape Colony
into the Transvaal and was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel
for his services. He spent the period from 1901 to 1907 at the
War Office, being promoted colonel in 1903, and he then went
to the staff at Aldershot, where he spent three years. In 1910
he was appointed commandant of the Staff College, was shortly
afterwards promoted major-general, and in 1913 became director
of military training at the War Office.

On mobilization of the army for the World War, Sir W. Robert-
son he had been given the K.C.V.O. in 1913 was nominated



288



ROBINS ROCKEFELLER



quartermaster-general of the Expeditionary Force; he filled that
appointment most successfully for five months and then, in Jan.
1915, he became chief of the general staff to Sir J. French. In
the autumn of that year he was promoted lieutenant-general
for distinguished service and in the following Dec. was brought
back to the War Office to take up the post of chief of the impe-
rial general staff. There he immediately introduced great im-
provements in the office organization, and during the first year
and a half of his holding the appointment he was successful in
keeping the general control of operations on sound lines. While
convinced that the western front represented the decisive
theatre of war, and fully aware how mischievous was disper-
sion of force in principle, he saw to it that, where circumstances
unfortunately rendered operations in distant regions unavoid-
able, the commanders on the spot were furnished with what was
deemed essential to achieve success with the result that the
position of affairs in Mesopotamia, on the Suez frontier and in
E. Africa was completely transformed within a very few months of
his taking up his task. His services were recognized by his being
promoted general in 1916 and by his being given the G.C.B. in
1917. He had, however, always experienced some trouble in
sufficiently impressing upon the Government that the war could
only be won in the west, and in the later months of 1917 he
found it more and more difficult, in view of the somewhat dis-
appointing results obtained by Allied offensives in France and
Flanders, to persuade the War Cabinet that diversion of fight-
ing resources to Alexandretta, or to Palestine, or to Macedonia,
or to the Austro-Italian frontier, endangered prospects of victory
at the decisive point and might lead to disaster near home. His
anxieties were increased by the manner in which the problem of
man-power was treated. He moreover foresaw that the plan
of having a supreme war council composed of military repre-
sentatives of the Allies, such as was introduced towards the end
of the year, was an unworkable one. Finally in Feb. 1918 he
resigned just one month before the success that attended the
great German offensive of March proved how correct had been
his appreciation of the situation. He was given charge of the
eastern command, and three months later he succeeded Lord
French as commander-in-chief in Great Britain. On the final
distribution of honours for the war he was rewarded with a
baronetcy and grant of 10,000, and he was nominated G.C.M.G.
From April 1919 to March 1920 he commanded the British
troops on the Rhine, and, after relinquishing that appoint-
ment on the force being reduced, he was promoted field-marshal.
See his autobiographical volume From Private to Field-marshal
(1921).

ROBINS, ELIZABETH (r86s~ ), Anglo-American novelist
and actress, was born at Louisville, Ky., Aug. 6 1865, and educated
at Zanesville, O. She had had her early training as an actress
in America with the Boston Museum stock company, and
afterwards with Edwin Booth. Coming to London she first
appeared in The Real Little Lord Fauntlcroy in 1889, and between
1890 and 1896 she played in most of Ibsen's plays, in which she
established her position on the stage. In 1902 she was Lucrezia
in Stephen PhUlips's Paolo and Francesca at the St. James's
theatre, London. Her first novels, George Mandeville's Husband
(1894), The New Moon (1895) and Below the Salt (1896), appeared
over the pseudonym of C. E. Raimond, but in 1898 the success
of The Open Question led to her publishing in her own name, her
reputation as a writer being maintained in The Magnetic North
(1904); A Dark Lantern (1905); Come and Find Me (1908);
Camilla (1918) and The Messenger (1920). She took an active
part in the agitation for woman suffrage. Her play Votes for
Women was acted at the Court theatre, London, in 1907.

ROBINSON, EDWIN ARLINGTON (1869- ), American
poet, was born at Head Tide, Me., Dec. 22 1869. From the
public schools of Gardiner, Me., he proceeded in 1891 to Har-
vard, but withdrew after two years to take a business position
in New York City. From 1905 to 1910 he was connected with
the N.Y. Customs House, and then returned to Gardiner to
devote his time to literature, and especially to poetry. He
became a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters.



His works include The Torrent and the Night After (1896); The
Children of the Night (1897); Captain Craig (1902); The Town
down the River (1910); Van Zorn (1914, a play); The Porcupine
(1915, a play); The Man against the Sky (1916); Merlin (1917);
Lancelot (1920); The Three Taverns (1920); Awn's Harvest
(1921); Collected Poems (1921).

ROBSON, WILLIAM SNOWDON ROBSON, BARON (1832-1918),
English lawyer and lord of appeal, was born at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne Sept. 101852. He was educated at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he took his degree in 1877. In 1880 he was called to the
bar and entered politics, sitting as Liberal member for Bow and
Bromley from 1885 to 1886, and for South Shields from 1895 to
1910. He earned a reputation as a distinguished and energetic
.advocate, and became a Q.C. in 1892. In 1905 he was knighted,
and became solicitor-general in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
Government, being made Attorney-General in 1908. In 1910 he
was made a privy councillor, and became a lord of appeal and
life peer. He resigned his office in 1912, and died at Battle,
Sussex, Sept. n 1918.

ROBY, HENRY JOHN (1830-1915), English scholar (see
23.424), died at Grasmere Jan. 2 1915. He contributed a chapter
on Roman law to the second volume of the Cambridge Mediaeval
History in 1913.

ROCHEFORT, HENRI (1830-1913), French politician (see
23.426), died at Aix-les-Bains June 30 1913.

ROCKEFELLER, JOHN DAVISON (1839- ), American
capitalist (see 23.433), continued after 1910 to live a retired life,
and to give great sums for charitable and educational purposes.
In 1913 the Rockefeller Foundation was chartered under the
laws of the state of New York (Congress having refused to enact
the legislation necessary for a national charter) " to promote
the well-being of mankind throughout the world." To this, the
most extensive of his benefactions, Rockefeller had given in all
$180,000,000 by 1921. The income and $10,000,000 of the original
gifts were expended from time to time by its trustees. With
increasing definiteness the Rockefeller Foundation focussed its
efforts in the fields of medical education and public health.
After 1913 it supported by appropriations the International
Health Board, an independent organization engaged, in coop-
eration with governmental agencies, in demonstrations for the
control of hookworm disease in 14 southern states of the United
States and 22 foreign states or countries; of yellow fever in
five South and Central American countries and of malaria in
10 southern states of the United States. In addition, the
International Health Board, with funds provided by the Rocke-
feller Foundation, organized in 1917, partly as a war measure, the
Commission for Prevention of Tuberculosis in France; this
commission conducted in limited areas, as demonstrations, vigor-
ous campaigns of popular education in hygiene, and provided for
the training of French women as health visitors. By the end
of 1920 arrangements were under way for the continuation of
the work of the Commission by French authorities. In 1914 the
Rockefeller Foundation established the China Medical Board to
promote the development of scientific medicine and hygiene in
China through medical schools, hospitals, and training schools
for nurses. In 1919 the Peking Union Medical College, founded
by it, was opened together with pre-medical and nurse-training
schools. Gifts have been made also to other institutions in
China offering pre-medical courses, and to hospitals. In 1920
the Foundation established a Division of Medical Education,
through whose advice large pledges of money were made for the
development of medical centres in London, and in various cities
of Canada. As a part of its public health work, the Rockefeller
Foundation also made grants for the support of schools of
hygiene at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and at the
university of Sao Paulo, Brazil. A special feature of the work was
provision for fellowships to persons from many different countries
engaged in study in medical education and public health. Dur-
ing the year 1920, 71 fellows from 13 countries (including the
United States) were supported. During the World War the
Foundation contributed to war work agencies; and before
crystallization of its general policy of limiting its work to



RODIN ROMER



289



medical education and public health, it made appropriations
to a number of objects in other fields.

To the General Education Board, the next largest of his
charities, Rockefeller had given up to Dec. 1920 over $115,-
000,000. By the close of the fiscal year 1920, this Board had
contributed more than $32,000,000 towards the endowments
of different colleges, excluding professional departments, the
general practice being to make gifts contingent upon the
raising of additional sums. Among medical schools which
received help were Washington University, $2,345,000; Johns
Hopkins, over $2,200,000; University of Chicago, $2,000,000
(joint fund with the Rockefeller Foundation, 1916); Vanderbilt,
$4,000,000 (1919); Rochester, $5,000,000 (1920); Yale Medical