the Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, as Tura, to desig-
nate a country which was contiguous to Iran (Persia) and the
inhabitants of which were in constant conflict with the Iranians.
It is met with again about A.D. 1000 in the Shahname or Book of
Kings, of the Persian poet Firdusi as Turan, the country beyond
the Oxus (now the Amu Darya). Persian sources show that the
ancient Turan (Turania) corresponded roughly to the Russian
Turkestan of to-day. In the second half of the igth century
" Turanian " came to be used as a loose designation of Asiatic
languages that were neither Aryan nor Semitic, and to be simi-
larly applied in a racial sense to the nomadic peoples speaking
those languages, as opposed to the agricultural Aryans. The
term has more recently become synonymous with " Altaic " or
"Ural-Altaic." "Turanian" is here treated in this definite sense.
Having spread in prehistoric times from the Altai mountains
in the centre of Asia, this ethnic family at the present day occu-
pies a broad belt of territory extending from Thrace across Asia
to the sea of Japan and reaching from about 35 N. lat. to the
coast of the Arctic Ocean. It consists of five main branches, the
Samoyeds, the Finno-Ugrians and the Tunguses constituting the
northern, and the Mongols and the Turks the southern division.
The countries inhabited by the Turanians are Siberia, Mongolia,
Manchuria, Chinese and Russian Turkestan, Asia Minor, parts of
Persia and Afghanistan, the Caucasus, the Crimea, the Volga
and Pechora regions of eastern Russia, Lapland, Finland, Hun-
gary, and portions of the Balkans.
Down to the outbreak of the World War all the Turanian
peoples* were subject to foreign (Russian, Chinese, Persian,
Afghan) domination except the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks.
Only those sections of the Turanians that have come into close
contact with the Aryans of Europe have succeeded in rising from
their primitive state to a comparatively advanced degree of civil-
ization: the Finns, the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks.
The Turanians in Europe number in round figures 22,000,000:
10,000,000 Magyars; 6,000,000 Samoyeds and Finns; and 6,000,-
ooo Turks. In Asia there are 26,000,000: 115,000 Finns, Samo-
PAN-TURANIANISM
yeds. and Tunguses, all in Siberia; 6,000,000 Manchus, Mongols
and Turks, all until recently under Chinese rule; 8.200,000 Turks
in Asiatic Russia; 3,500,000 in Persia and Afghanistan; and
8,000,000 Osmanli Turks in Asia Minor. The Turks in Russia
are usually called Tatars, and those elsewhere outside the Turk-
ish Empire, Turco-Tatars. Their language is the most charac-
teristic feature of the Turanians. As contrasted with the highly
inflexional Indo-European and Semitic linguistic families on the
one hand, and the monosyllabic Chinese on the other, the Tura-
nian languages are typical examples of the agglutinative form of
speech. Here unchangeable roots are combined with suffixes by
means of what is called progressive vowel harmony, in such a way
that the vowels of the endings are assimilated to that of the root.
Thus the infinitive element mak, which appears in Osmanli Turk-
ish yaz-mak, " to write," becomes mek in sev-mek, " to love."
The Mongolians best represent the Turanian physical type.
They have broad faces, small, slanting eyes, high cheek-bones,
broad, flat noses, thick lips and low foreheads: their complexion
is yellowish brown, their hair straight, and their beards scanty.
The various branches of the Turanians have intermingled to a
considerable extent, but it was only on their western con-
fines that they mixed much with aliens, expecially Slavs. Thus
many Finnish tribes have been absorbed by the surrounding
Russians: the Magyars and the Osmanli Turks, though they have
retained their Turanian speech, have lost most of their physical
Turanian characteristics; while the Volga Bulgars have no trace
of their original Turanian language and physique left, their name
alone having survived among the Bulgarians of to-day.
The primitive religion of the Turanians is called Shamanism
because its distinctive feature is the agency of the Shaman, a
wizard priest, whose services are required to influence the super-
natural powers. Witchcraft predominates in this religion, it be-
ing the function of the Shaman to master all that in nature is
hostile to man, to curb the elements, to conjure spirits, to pro-
duce health or disease, fortune or misfortune. The Shamanist
operates mainly against demons, but he also believes in higher
gods, whom he calls to his aid by means of prayer and sacrifice.
Ancestor worship is, moreover, a characteristic feature of Sha-
manism. An important instrument in the rites of the Shaman is
the drum, by means of which he can summon spirits, and compel
them to give active assistance. Shamanism is still found in all
the Asiatic branches of the Turanian family. But it is only gen-
eral among the Tunguses, all the tribes of whom (except the Man-
chus) are devoted to their old faith. The Samoyeds, too, are
still largely Shamanists. Among the Mongols, the Buryats on
Lake Baikal are the only tribe in which Shamanism prevails.
Among the Turks, the old religion survives only in the tribes
that remained behind in the Altai range. From the rest of the
Turkish peoples it has been extirpated by Islam, though single
tribes of Turkish nomads show clear traces of their original beliefs.
On the other hand, the Magyars and the Finns adopted Christi-
anity many centuries ago.
The very primitive stage of civilization which the Turanians
had attained when they first appear in history, has remained on
much the same level, with the few exceptions caused by Euro-
pean contact, down to the present day. As the cultivable soil of
the ancient world had already been occupied by the Chinese, the
Aryans and the Semites, the Turanians, when driven by the ex-
pansion of population to migrate from their ancient homes in the
Altai mountains, were compelled to wander in barren steppes in
order to maintain themselves. Their civilization thus acquired
the stamp of nomadism, in which the isolation of small communi-
ties caused by their mode of life prevented the patriarchal system
of government from advancing to any higher stage of political
organization. The struggle for existence naturally brought them
constantly into predatory conflict with their settled and more
prosperous neighbours, while boundary disputes tended to per-
petual internal strife. The unsettled habits thus produced have,
since the adoption of Islam by the Turkish branch, made that
branch for many centuries the main cause of unrest in the history
of the world, because the directing force of fanaticism has been
added to their unorganized restlessness.
The above account of the various branches of the Turanians
will supply the material on the basis of which the prospects of
Pan-Turanianism may be judged. The movement in its wider
aspect having in the years preceding the war been the product
of the German-educated Intelligentsia of Constantinople, was,
after Turkey joined the Central Powers, much used in support of
the alliance between Turkey and Hungary on the strength of
racial kinship, and as a lure for the Tatars of the Russian Empire.
In the summer of 1918, Halil Pasha, an uncle of Enver Pasha,
had an interview, reported in a Berlin journal in 1920, with a Ger-
man commanding officer in Anatolia, to whom he expounded the
aims of the Pan-Turanian movement. Placing the national policy
in the foreground, he said it was necessary to unite all Turk-
ish-speaking peoples. The beginning must be made with the
conquest of Turkestan, the cradle of the Turkish Empire. The
next step would be to establish a connexion with the Siberian
Yakuts, the farthest outpost of the Turkish Turanians in the
north-east of Asia. After that, the Tatars of the Caucasus were
to be included. This nationally exclusive Turkish Empire must,
he continued, as a Mahommedan supreme power, have a great
attraction for the Turks of Afghanistan and Persia. The incor-
poration of Azerbaijan, the richest Persian province, might thus
be hoped for in the near future. When, on the conclusion of the
war, Constantinople had been occupied by the Entente Powers,
Halil Pasha was thrown into prison there by them, but, manag-
ing to escape, he continued his activities in favour of a Pan-Turk-
ish Empire. Enver Pasha had previously been emphasizing the
Pan-Islamic policy and been using Arabs as Turcophil propa-
gandists in the Caucasus. The general plan of this double pro-
cedure was by fusing the religious movement of Pan-Islamism
with the racial movement of Pan-Turanianism to establish a
great Turkish Empire, with Constantinople as the centre of both.
Pan-Turanianism, from the point of view of practical politi-
cians, does not go beyond the ideal of a Turkish Empire compris-
ing all the divisions of the Turkish race, the numbers of which
do not really exceed about 26,000,000. As the Ottoman Empire
contains no more than 10,000,000 Turks within its present limits,
the Irredentism of the Pan-Turanian movement embraces a pop-
ulation of 16,000,000. Before the war, 12,000,000 of these were
under Russian and 4,000,000 under Chinese, Persian and Afghan
rule. At that period Russia could scarcely be regarded as a very
promising field for Pan-Turanian propaganda; for generally
speaking the Russian Mahommedans had been loyal, conserva-
tive, and somewhat narrow in their political outlook. Had Rus-
sia emerged intact from the conflict, her Turkish territory could
have been wrested from her only at the price of another war, which
the Ottoman Empire would hardly have been willing to face.
But the whole situation has been transformed by the Russian
Revolution and the consequent break-up of Russia. The Irreden-
tist ambitions of Pan-Turanianism have now been brought ap-
preciably nearer the possibility of realization. A warmer sympa-
thy has been developed among the Russian Mahommedans with
the Mahommedans abroad. Russian Turkestan and the two
Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara have asserted their indepen-
dence; the Tatars of the Caucasus have become republics. These
new conditions might render the voluntary incorporation of all
these outside Turkish populations in the Ottoman Empire not
unlikely. For the important unifying elements of general identity
of language, religion, and civilization, besides contiguity of terri-
tory, are all present. The speech of the Turkish branch of the
Turanians has changed so comparatively little that all the divi-
sions may be said to speak one single language, Turkish, differing
only to the extent of dialects. Islam is the religion of all the divi-
sions of the Turkish branch, which, though it only adopted this
religion, has been its main protagonist. The Turkish-speaking
peoples, again, have a common civilization which, based on their
primitive nomadism, has as its superstructure the ethics and the
culture of the Koran. Finally, with the exception of the Yakuts
in the north-east of Siberia, the Turkish peoples are practically
in continuous geographical contact from Thrace eastward to the
frontier of Mongolia and northward into south-eastern Russia.
The connexion of eastern Asia Minor, by way of the Caucasus,
PARAGUAY
with Central Asia, which was closed by Tsarist Russia, is now
open for the union of the Turks. This road to the East is of great
importance both on political and economic grounds.
If the spirit of independence among the Turks of Central Asia,
the Caucasus, and Azerbaijan could be overcome by the unify-
ing power of common language, race, religion, and culture, Tur-
key might become a formidable political power based on the com-
bined moral force of the Caliphate and of Turkish nationalism.
Pan-Turanianism, however, if pushed to extremes, is an arti-
ficial and a retrograde movement, and would then come into
irreconcilable conflict with Pan-Islamism. Thus the attempt to
carry out the proposal of some of the Turks of Constantinople to
renounce the religion of Mahomet, or even to substitute Turk-
ish for the sacred language of the Koran, would incense the
fanatical Moslem. Again, the Turkish peoples outside the Otto-
man Empire do not form coherent populations, containing as
they do large nomadic elements. On the other hand, the Otto-
man Turks, indolent by nature, have never displayed any ability
or energy in state-building. It is therefore not likely that they
will develop enough statecraft and driving-power to succeed in
welding together the different Turkish peoples into a single strong
united empire containing perhaps 25,000,000 of the Turkish
race. The extension of Pan-Turanianism so as to include other
branches of the Turanians can only be pronounced to be a purely
visionary idea. The only connecting link between them and the
Turks at the present day is the descent of their various languages
from a single parent speech that existed in remote antiquity: but
Lapp and Manchu are to-day farther apart than English and
Sanskrit. The other four branches now differ from the Turks in
religion and civilization, besides being separated from them by
great and often immense distances. The Samoyeds are nominally
Christians, but really Shamanists. The Tunguses, who inhabit
a vast tract of north-eastern Asia as Shamanists and reindeer
nomads, are slowly dying-out in Siberia while their most prom-
inent tribe, the Manchus, are being entirely absorbed by Chi-
nese civilization. The Mongols, who are the eastern neighbours
of Turkish tribes, and were many centuries ago politically asso-
ciated with the Turks as warlike invaders of the West, are nomads
and for the most part adherents of Buddhism, which has trans-
formed them into a peaceful and unenterprising people that at
the present day has hardly anything in common with the Turks.
The Finno-Ugrian branch, for the most part separated by long
distances from the Turks, have with very slight exceptions been
thoroughly Europeanized and Christianized for many centuries.
The Magyars, conquered by the Turks in the i6th and I7th cen-
turies, fought on the side of the Turks during the World War
owing to the pressure of the German alliance; but there seems to
be no permanent prospect of political association between these
two racially and linguistically related races. It thus seems clear
that at least 2o,ooo,ooo'Turanians will never have the slightest
inherent tendency to be drawn into union with the Islamic
religion and civilization of the Turkish Empire.
AUTHORITIES. Sarron, La Jeune Ttirquie et la Revolution (1912);
Tekin Alp, The Turkish and Pan-Turkish Ideal (1916); La Turquie
et la Guerre (1916); " Islam and the War," Quarterly Review (April
1918); Macdonell, Turanians and Pan-Turanianism (1918); Eura-
sian Routes (1920); Berliner Tageblatt (Jan. 24 and 28 1920).
(A. A. M.)
PARAGUAY (see 20.756). The pop. of Paraguay in 1920 was
supposed to be about 800,000. At least 60% of the inhabitants
were illiterate, though President Franco during 19 16-9 made an
attempt toward educational progress. The school registration
for 1916 was 80,142.
Of the imports of Paraguay 81%, and of the exports 40%, pass
through the Asuncion custom-house. The total foreign trade of
Paraguay varied little between 1907 and 1918 though the proportion
of imports to exports differed, as will be seen from the following
table, showing the official customs values in Paraguayan gold pesos,
equal to 45. or 80.96 each :
Imports
Exjxirts
Total
1907
1917
1918
7,512,502
5,098,581
5,201,726
3,236,110
6,494,802
-,1/1,319
10,748,612
",593,383
12,373,045
The United Kingdom had first place in imports until 1908, when
Germany passed her, supplying 29% of the total imports as against
Great Britain's 21 per cent. A close competition followed. In
1913 the United Kingdom supplied 28-6% of Paraguay's imports
as compared with 27-6% from Germany, but in 1914 the situation
was reversed, Germany supplying 27 % to the United Kingdom's
22-7 per cent. In 1915 and 1916 the proportion of imports from
the United Kingdom rose to 33% and 38-5% respectively. There
was in 1921 only one strictly British mercantile house, and only one
American, as compared with five German houses.
History. Manuel Gondra became President on Jan. 18 191 1
but was overthrown by a revolution headed by Col. Albino Jara
in July of that year. Jara was succeeded in turn by Liberate
Rojos, who was overthrown Jan. 14 1912 by another " alteration
of the legal order," as a consequence of which Pedro Pena was
placed in the presidential chair Feb. 29. Considerable bloodshed
accompanied these changes, which cost the country at least 400,-
ooo. On March 25 Emiliano Gonzalez Navero became Presi-
dent, retaining office until Aug. 15, when Eduardo Scherer suc-
ceeded him. Scherer actually completed his term of office, the
first time this had occurred in Paraguay since 1870. His firmness
prevented several outbreaks and disturbances, especially one at
the beginning of 1915, which might have been most serious under
a weaker executive. Scherer's successor was fortunately another
able man, Manuel Franco, who retained his position from Aug.
15 1916 until his death on June 3 1919. Franco not merely
forestalled revolutions, but brought Paraguayan finance to the
best condition it had reached for years. During his administra-
tion the meat-packing industry became fully established in
Paraguay. This was the greatest step forward that had occurred
since 1870. By encouraging an industry which more than almost
any other improves the lot of the individual farmer in a rather
isolated agricultural country, the three United States packing-
houses that established themselves in Paraguay during Presi-
dent Franco's administration were of great service. They caused
a thorough survey of Paraguay's cattle-raising possibilities to be
made and also studied the different grasses and areas of pasturage
and their suitability for different breeds of cattle. In 1918 37%
of the total exports of Paraguay consisted of the products of
stock-raising and meat-packing as against 32-4% for the prod-
ucts of the forest industries (lumber, quebracho, etc.) and 30-2%
for agricultural products.
Jose P. Montero filled the remainder of Franco's presi-
dential term, from June 3 1919 to Aug. 15 1920, when Manuel
Gondra again became President, having been elected while
minister to the United States. The lessened demand from
Europe and the United States for the chief exports of Paraguay
at the close of the World War caused a decided setback to Para-
guay's prosperity. On Jan. i 1921 Paraguay was unable to
meet the payments due on her foreign debts, and the largest
banks in the country became seriously involved, further aggravat-
ing the commercial crisis. An American financial adviser was
assisting the Paraguayan Government in 1921. On Nov. 17 1913
through rail communication was inaugurated between Asunci6n
and Buenos Aires. This has done much to lessen the isolation of
the country, for under normal conditions the journey between
the two cities is made in 50 hours. Paraguay renewed direct diplo-
matic relations with the United States in 1913, sending a minis-
ter to Washington for the first time in eight years, while the
United States created a separate mission for Paraguay in the same
year, accrediting a minister to Paraguay alone, instead of to
Uruguay and Paraguay jointly as formerly. Great Britain in
1921 still accredited one minister to both countries. The United
States and Paraguay signed an extradition treaty on July 30
1913. In Nov. 1921, Pres. Gondra was ejected from office as the
result of a revolution.
The Government remained neutral during the World War,
though Congress adopted a resolution of sympathy with the
Allies and of approval of the action of the United States in de-
claring war on Germany. The Government dismissed some of
its German employees, and maintained a pro-Ally attitude.
The best recent book on Paraguay is: W. L. Schurz, Paraguay,
a Commercial Handbook, published by the Government Printing
Office at Washington, D.C., 1920. (C. L. C.)
PARAVANE PARKER, SIR G.
33
PARAVANE, a naval device used in the World War first for
attacking submerged submarines and subsequently for protect-
ing vessels against mines and for cutting up hostile minefields.
The name of Acting-Comm. C. D. Burney is especially associated
with its design and development.
The explosive paravane in its final form consisted of a torpedo-
shaped body carrying near its head a large steel plane which was
set at a small angle to the centre-line of the body, and was in an
approximately vertical position when the paravane was being
towed. The thrust of the water on the plane carried the paravane
away from the towing vessel, and with two paravanes, one on
each side, a spread of sweep of about 200 ft. was obtained, i.e.
the two paravanes were that distance apart. Horizontal and
vertical fins near the tail increased the stability, and in the tail
was fitted a depth-keeping mechanism consisting of a horizontal
rudder actuated by a hydrostatic valve which responded to any
difference in the water-pressure caused by a change of depth.
The paravane carried a heavy charge of high explosive which
could be detonated, by means of an electric current passing
through the core of the towing-wire, in any one of three ways. If
the paravane hit the hull of a submarine, striking-gear on its nose
operated a switch which closed the firing circuit. This impact
method would not become operative should the towing-line be-
come entangled in the external fittings of a submarine, but in that
case an extra load would be put on the line; apparatus was there-
fore provided such that when the load on the line exceeded a pre-
determined value a switch was tripped and the circuit closed.
Finally a hand-switch on the bridge of the towing vessel en-
abled the charge to be detonated at will should the presence of
a submarine be suspected.
It was soon seen that the explosive paravane could be adapted
to protect vessels against moored mines. For this purpose the tow-
ing-lines were attached, not at the stern as with the explosive
paravanes, but at & point as far forward and as low down as possi-
ble. Their outboard ends being kept about 100 ft. away from the
central fore and aft line of the ship by the paravanes to which
they were attached, they swept a wedge-shaped track in a hori-
zontal plane at the level of the keel or slightly below it, and
fouled the mooring-wires of any anchored mines lying in or near
the course of the vessel. When this happened the mooring- wire was
deflected along the towing-line until it reached the head of the
paravane, where it was guided into the jaws of shears or scissors
made of special high-grade steel, by which it was severed. The
mine then floated to the surface and was exploded by rifle-fire.
It was found that with a pull of about 7 cwt. the shears would
cut a ij in. mooring-wire. The normal length of the towing-lines
was 56 yd. ; three-strand wire ropes were used, each consisting of
37 galvanized wires, 0-049 i n - i n diameter, with an ultimate
breaking strength of between 100 and 120 tons per sq. in. There
were three types of protector paravanes: (i) The merchant-
vessel type, known as " otters," for ships with speeds below 16
knots; (2) the fast-liner type; and (3) the battleship type.
The mine-sweeping paravanes were towed from the stern of
high-speed destroyers. As the point of attachment had to be on
deck, an arrangement called a " depressor " was used to bring
the virtual point of tow down to the required depth at the stern.
Wide paths could be swept at speeds of 26 to 30 knots.
PARDO BAZAN, EMILIA (1851-1921), Spanish author (see
20.800), died in May 1921.
PARIS (see 20.804). The population of the French capital,
2,847,229 at the census of 1911, was 2,906,472 at the census
of 1921. In view of the rapid German advance on Paris after
the outbreak of war in August 1914, steps were quietly taken to
evacuate as many as possible of the civilian population; and on
the night of Sept. 2 the President and ministers left the city
for Bordeaux, where the Government was temporarily trans-
ferred. But the victory of the Marne removed the peril from
Paris, and in December the Government returned there.
Paris during the World War was bombarded by aeroplane,
Zeppelin, and artillery; 746 bombs were dropped from the air,
killing 266 persons and wounding 603; German long-range ar-
tillery fired 303 shells into Paris, killing 256 persons and wound-
XXXII. 2
ing 620. The first air raid was made on Aug. 30 1914, by