Minister of Cape Colony, and married in 1894 Mr. S. C. Cron-
wright, also a S. African politician. Early in 1882, when she was
20 years old, she brought to England the MS. of her first novel,
The Story of an African Farm, and submitted it first to George
Meredith, then reader for Chapman & Hall. He praised the
book and suggested certain alterations, most of which she ac-
cepted. Eventually it was published by the firm in 1883, over
the pseudonym " Ralph Iron." Its success was immediate, but
nothing else that she wrote had quite the same literary quality.
Her later work includes Dreams (1891); Trooper Peter Halkett
of Mashonaland (1897), a much-criticized attack on the first
settlers in Rhodesia; An English South African's View of the
Situation (1899); and Woman and Labour (1911), a fragment of
an earlier MS. which had been burnt with other papers during
the S. African War. She died at Cape Town in Det. 1920.

SCHREINER, WILLIAM PHILIP (1837-1919), South African
lawyer and statesman, the youngest son of a German missionary,
was born in the district of Herschel, Cape Colony. He studied
law at Cape Town and at Cambridge and London universities.
He was called to the bar (Inner Temple) in 1882 and the same
year returned to the Cape where he was admitted an advocate
of the Supreme Court. He soon attained success and was for
many years leader of the Cape bar. In 1893 Schreiner, who had
been legal adviser to the High Commissioner since 1887, began
his political career as attorney-general in the second Ministry
of Cecil Rhodes. He resigned the same year, took the same
portfolio again in Sept. 1894 and remained in office until the
Jameson Raid brought about the downfall of the Rhodes Min-
istry. In 1898, having helped to bring about the fall of the
Sprigg Ministry, Schreiner became Prime Minister of Cape
Colony and held that position when the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-
1902 began. During the crisis which preceded the outbreak of
hostilities he allowed the passage of armaments to the Dutch
republics, and when the war broke out he wished to keep Cape
Colony neutral (see 5. 244). Acute differences in the Cabinet
caused Schreiner to resign office in June 1900. Later he advo-
cated, unsuccessfully, the federation instead of the unification
of the South African colonies. In 1914 he accepted the office
of High Commissioner of the Union in London and held that
post until his death. He died at Llandrindod Wells on June
28 1919. Schreiner married, in 1884, Frances, sister of F. W.
Reitz, President of the Orange Free State. He was a brother
of Olive Schreiner, the novelist. Schreiner was a man of high
attainments, great industry and impressive speech. His
qualities showed at their best at the bar, and the proper crown
of his career would have been a seat on the bench. But as a
politician he suffered from a lack of suppleness which dis-
qualified him from becoming a popular leader. He had also
too much of the cross-bench mind. He was a sincere friend
of the natives, and, in 1908-9 successfully defended Dinizulu
against the charges of treason and murder brought against him.
He also went to London as a delegate of the Coloured Races
Political Association to oppose restrictions in the Act of Union.

SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836-1903), German theologian (see
24.382), died in 1903.

SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854- ), American educa-
tionist (see 24.386), was appointed in 1912 U.S. minister to
Greece and Montenegro, serving one year. During the World
War, when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare, he
urged that American rights be firmly insisted upon; he pointed
out that the destruction of the " Lusitania " in 1915 threatened
to efface the distinction between combatants and non-combat-
ants long recognized by civilized peoples. In 1915 he was first
vice-president of the N.Y. State Constitutional Convention. In
Oct. 1917 he was appointed a member of the N.Y. State Food
Commission, resigning in June 1918 to go to France as lecturer
to American soldiers under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A. He
was opposed to many of President Wilson's policies, especially
in connexion with Mexico, and also to Article X. of the Covenant
of the League of Nations, believing that it would involve the
United States in war. As early as 1913 he urged the independence



of the Philippines in the near future; in 1914 he declared in fa-
vour of woman suffrage. He resigned the presidency of Cornell
University in 1920. He was appointed minister to China in 1921.
He was the author of The Balkan Wars 1912-1913 (1914, lectures
at Princeton).

SCHUSTER, SIR ARTHUR (1851- ), British physicist,
was born in Frankfort-on-Main Sept. 12 1851, the son of Francis
Joseph Schuster, of Frankfort, who in early life made his home
in London, where he carried on a successful business as merchant-
banker in Cannon St., his three sons, Ernest Joseph (b.iSso),
subsequently a well-known lawyer, Arthur, and Felix (see below),
being brought up, like himself, as British subjects. Arthur Schus-
ter was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and at Heidel-
berg University, and devoted himself to a scientific career as an
astronomer and mathematical physicist. He was chief of the
" Eclipse " expedition to Siam in 1875, and from 1888 to 1907 was
professor of physics in Manchester University, his main work for
many years being connected with advanced research in spectro-
scopy, on which subject he contributed the article in the gth ed.
of the E.B. in 1887 (as also to the nth ed. in 1910). He was
awarded the royal medal of the Royal Society in 1893, and was
one of the secretaries of the Royal Society from 1912 till 1920.
He was president of the British Association in 1915, having in
1892 acted as sectional president for astronomy, and he became
well known throughout the scientific world, receiving hon. de-
grees from both Oxford and Cambridge. He was also secretary
of the International Research Council, and during the World
War, both in that capacity and as a representative of the Royal
Society, he did invaluable work as a scientific adviser in con-
nexion with the organization of research in various departments.
He was knighted in 1920, and was appointed a member of the
royal commission on the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
His numerous publications include works on Theory of Optics
(2nd ed. 1909), The Progress of Physics (1911) and Britain's
Heritage of Science (1917).

His brother, SIR FELIX SCHUSTER, Bart. (1854- ), was
also educated at Owens College, Manchester, and studied fur-
ther abroad, afterwards making his career in London banking.
From 1895 he was identified, as governor, with the Union Bank
of London, afterwards the Union of London & Smiths Bank,
and in 1918 amalgamated with the National Provincial Bank as
the National Provincial & Union Bank of England. He was a
member of the Council of India from 1906 to 1916, and became
chairman both of the Central Association of Bankers and of the
Committee of London Clearing Banks. In these years he es-
tablished for himself a leading position in financial and economic
circles, and was made a member of several important Govern-
ment committees and royal commissions, his annual addresses
to the shareholders of his bank being recognized, with those of
Sir Edward Holden (of the London, City & Midland Bank), as
among the most important contributions of the day to sound
thinking on current monetary problems. He was created a
baronet in 1906.

SCHWAB, CHARLES MICHAEL (1862- ), American cap-
italist, was born at Williamsburg, Pa., April 18 1862. He was
educated in the .public schools and at St. Francis College,
Loretto, Pa., where he gained an elementary knowledge of
engineering. From 1878 to 1880 he was a clerk in a store at
Braddock, Pa., and then became a stake driver in the engineer-
ing corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works of Carnegie Bros.
& Co. His ability brought him rapid promotion and in 1881 he
was made chief engineer and assistant manager. Six years later
he was appointed superintendent of the Homestead Steel Works.
In 1889, on the recommendation of Henry Frick, he was made
general superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, and
in 1892, after the formation of the Carnegie Steel Co., he was
made also general superintendent of the Homestead Works. In
1897 he was elected president of the Carnegie Steel Co., and
when this was merged in 1901 in the U.S. Steel Corp. he was
made president of the latter. He resigned in 1903. He then
turned his attention to shipbuilding and a few years later with
other capitalists secured control of the Bethlehem Steel Corp.,



378



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT



which owned the Bethlehem Steel Co., and several other cor-
porations engaged in the iron, steel and shipbuilding business.
He was made chairman of the board of directors. After the out-
break of the World War in 1914 and before the United States
entered it, these companies filled orders for the Allies aggregating
between 400 and 500 million dollars. The manufacture of sub-
marines for England raised the question of neutrality, but this
was solved by shipping parts to Canada, where they were
assembled. It was generally understock that German interests
made attempts to secure control f the Bethlehem works in
order to shut off munitions from the Allies, and a report that
Mr. Schwab was offered $100,000,000 for his interest was not
only widely published but was given prominence in a reception
given to him by the New York Chamber of Commerce, and
neither then nor at any other time denied by Mr. Schwab.
After America's entrance into the war special attention was
given to the speeding up of shipbuilding, and in April 1918, at
the urgent request of President Wilson, Mr. Schwab became
director-general of the shipbuilding board of the Emergency
Fleet Corp. His power of rousing enthusiasm among workers
by personal contact began immediately to produce results. The
resulting output for 1918 was 410 steel vessels (2,570,077 dead-
weight tonnage), 106 wooden ships (376,480 deadweight ton-
nage), and 10 composite ships (37,500 deadweight tonnage), a
total of 526 vessels. After the signing of the Armistice in Nov.
1918, feeling that his services were no longer required, he resigned
from the Emergency Fleet Corp. in Dec. and returned to his
position as chairman of the board of directors of the Bethlehem
Steel Corp. Later, charges were brought that he had wrongfully
used Government money for expenses unrelated to public duties
during his tenure of office, but official investigation completely
exonerated him. His benefactions include a Catholic church at
Loretto, as well as buildings and endowment for St. Francis
College; a church at Braddock, Pa., a school at Weatherly, Pa.,
and a country home on Staten Island, N.Y., for children of the
New York Foundling Hospital.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT This is one of the names
adopted for a certain body of principles and methods of manage-
ment which have been propounded as applicable to industrial
undertakings, other names being Efficiency Engineering and
Industrial Management. Developed in the United States, main-
ly since about 1905, and particularly in connexion with en-
gineering work, the methods of Scientific Management have
exercised a profound influence on methods of factory manage-
ment in England and on the continent of Europe, as well as in
America. Though applicable to most of the problems of in-
dustrial administration, they have in fact been worked out main-
ly in' connexion with the control of workshop processes.

The theory underlying Scientific Management is briefly that
there is " one best way " of doing every act that has to be per-
formed in a workshop, and that it is the duty of the management
to discover that " one best way " and to make such arrangements
as will ensure that it is always carried out. The method of pro-
cedure may be indicated by propounding the following three
questions :-

1. What are the factors which limit the speed of a particular
workshop process or machine?

2. Why is it that the volume of output from a particular process
is always less at the end of the week than the product of the speed
of the process or of the machine, multiplied by the working hours in
the week, would lead one to expect?

3. Why do some workers produce so much more than others work-
ing under the same conditions?

An attempt to discover full answers to these questions leads
to very far-reaching inquiries, and radical changes in organiza-
tion and administrative methods may become necessary if the
results of such inquiries are to be put to effective use.

Thus, the investigations prompted by the first question may
be expected to lead to modifications of the mechanism and con-
struction of a machine to enable it to run faster; to modifications
of tools or appliances used; to changes of the material used for
machine parts, for tools or for accessory purposes. Changes in
the design of the work to be done might also follow, which, while



leaving the product just as suitable for its purpose as before,
would enable the process to be carried out faster. A different
method of handling the work, the machine or the tools might be
developed, involving a new series of motions on the part of the
workman which would result in a saving of time. Not only
would specific improvements be made of the kind suggested
above, but the effect of each of the many elements which influ-
enced and limited the speed of a process would be reduced to a
law, the knowledge of which would save a great deal of ex-
perimentation in applying the process to changed conditions.

Investigation of the second question might lead to equally
valuable discoveries. For instance, it might be found that the
process was stopped altogether for portions of the working week
for such reasons as lack of continuous supply of material to be
worked on; changes of the " set-up " of a machine due to change
in the nature of the work to be done; breakdowns of the machine;
adjusting or sharpening of tools; waiting for instructions and
many other possible causes. The attempt to remedy these
would lead to the development of methods of work-control and
planning. These would aim at ensuring that material was always
ready to hand to be worked on; that all work of a like nature was
carried through at the one time, to avoid needless resetting of
machines; that tools and appliances were ready to hand; that
instructions as to the next job were prepared and ready in ad-
vance; that the nature of each new piece of work was clearly
described and so on. Schemes of periodic inspection or adjust-
ment of machines or tools might be indicated in order to reduce
time lost through breakdowns.

The third question would lead to the discovery that different
workmen had slightly different ways of doing the same thing,
and that the ways of the faster workers could be explained to and
adopted by the others; that some workers were temperamen-
tally more suited to a particular kind of work than others; that
some were not trying; that others were trying too hard and were
worrying themselves by their failure; that in some cases the re-
lations between the workmen and the foreman were happy and
in other cases not.

The remedying of these troubles would lead to careful methods
of choosing workmen for particular jobs, to ensure that men of
suitable temperament as well as capacity and skill were em-
ployed; to schemes of instruction for showing the worker exactly
what was required of him, and for teaching him the methods
which had been found to be the best for carrying out the work
in question. A scheme of payment by result might be developed,
to give the workman the necessary incentive to ensure that he
would profit by the instruction given him and would follow the
methods laid down. The methods of control, the relationship of
the various grades of personnel and the demarcation of the
spheres of authority of the various officers of the workshop
might also require rearranging, to allow of the foregoing changes
and to ensure satisfactory relations between the workmen and
those directing them. Built up on the result of such investiga-
tions as have been indicated, a variety of systems of manage-
ment have grown up, one emphasizing one factor and another
specializing in another direction, and all known by the general
description of Scientific Management.

The origin of the movement is traceable to the work of F. W.
Taylor, an American engineer, for many years a manager in the
works of the Bethlehem Steel Co., Midvale, Pa. His investiga-
tions, leading later to the development of his methods and prin-
ciples of management, sprang from the attempt on his part to
lay down a standard fair day's work and to see that he got it from
the men under his control. This led him into a deep analysis of
the elements affecting the amount of work that could be done in
a given time, and in turn by the kind of steps already indicated
to the formulation of his system. One of the largest single pieces
of investigation carried through by him was concerned with es-
tablishing the laws governing the rate of removal of metal by
cutting-tools in a machine. This was carried on at intervals
during 26 years. One result of it was the discovery in 1899 of
modifications in the composition of tool steel from which the
modern high-speed steel was developed. The whole results were



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT



379



published in 1906 in the Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers under the title" The Art of Cutting Metals."
In this Taylor distinguished 12 different factors as influencing
the possible speed, and he established formulae expressing the
effect which each had on the rate at which metal could be re-
moved during a machining operation. He found that the maxi-
mum speed of working could only be attained by a correct
adjustment of each variable in relation to all the others. To
enable this calculation to be made quickly, one of Taylor's
assistants, C. G. Earth, devised a type of compound slide rule,
by which the best adjustment of the 12 variables referred to
could quickly be found, so establishing the combination of condi-
tions under which the work could be done in the shortest time.
An account of these slide rules was published in the Transactions
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1904). A
special slide rule was needed for every variation of every type of
machine, and in order to reduce this complication it was neces-
sary to group together all machines capable of doing similar
work and to modify them so as to make their movements identi-
cal. One calculation and one slide rule would then serve for all
the machines of a group. In other words, machines were, where
possible, standardized.

To enable maximum cutting speeds to be attained Taylor
established, as a result of the foregoing investigation, a set of
standard cutting tools for the commonest kinds of machine opera-
tions, such as lathe work. These standard tools were specified as
to contour of cutting edge, all angles of cutting edge, size of
shank and hardening treatment, etc.

Another piece of standardization work resulting from Taylor's
investigations was in connexion with the design and use of belt
\ drives. Obviously, if a machine was to be called on to give its
maximum performance the means of driving it must be suitable
to ensure adequate power. This necessitated an investigation
into the laws of power transmission by belting and the drawing
up of rules for the standardization both of the material of the
belts themselves and of the conditions under which they should
be used. One of the most important of these conditions is the
tightness of the belt before starting up the drive. Besides laying
down suitable rules for this, apparatus was designed for measur-
ing and checking it. Accounts of this work were published by
Taylor in 1894 and elaborated by Barth in 1908, both in the
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Concurrently with all this investigation another line of
thought had been receiving attention, both from Taylor and
others, again mostly in connexion with the engineering trade.
This was the problem of obtaining from the workman a higher
level of effort than he gave under ordinary methods of workshop
management. Although " piece work " payment by the piece
as against payment by the hour or day was in very general
use in many industries, the practice of "cutting the rate" had
reduced its efficiency as a stimulus to maximum effort. One of
the earliest attempts was the development during the 'eighties
by H. R. Towne of the Yale & Towne Mfg. Co., United States,
of a scheme called by him " gain sharing," according to which
improvements in the efficiency of a works department resulted
in the payment to workers in it of a bonus on a prearranged
scale. Other plans were the Rowan scheme, which consisted
. in the fixing of a variable rate per piece, the rate falling ac-
cording to a fixed scale as the workmen's output rose. By this
plan, although the workman benefitted by extra effort, the rate
of increase of benefit constantly diminished. The aim was to
avoid the temptation to "cut the rate" while still making an
attempt to fix a standard of expected output from the workman.
This plan was published in 1891.

In 1895 Taylor published his Differential Piece Rate, which
may be considered to be the basis on which all the multitudinous
systems of payment by result of the Scientific Management
movement are founded. Taylor's system contained two revo-
lutionary ideas. The first was the careful specification in great
detail of the work to be done, with standard times allowed for
each element of the work as against the " overall " time hitherto
specified for the complete job. The second was the offering of



an increased rate of return to the worker for increases in his
efficiency exactly the opposite to the Rowan plan. This was
achieved by offering two alternative piece rates, the lower to
apply if the work was done at less than the standard speed
and the higher if it were done at the standard speed or faster.
The feasibility of this scheme depended entirely on the accuracy
with which the "standard time" could be determined. So im-
portant did this become that the idea of " time study," with
its later development of " motion study," is probably the best-
known feature of Scientific Management, and indeed is often
taken to be synonymous with it.

Many modifications of Taylor's scheme of payment by result
were developed by other workers in the movement. All retained
as their basis the setting of a standard time by careful time
study, the time being built up of the times for the elements of
the work, and the nature of the work to be done and the methods
to be followed being specified in great detail. All provided
that the rate of incentive should increase at or about the
efficiency needed to accomplish the task. The best known of
these other schemes are the " Gantt bonus plan " by H. L.
Gantt, published in 1901, and that of Harrington Emerson,
published in 1909.

It will be realized that the characteristic features of Scientific
Management so far touched on the standardization of appli-
ances and methods, the detailed specification of the work to be
done, time and motion study, setting the workmen's task, regu-
lating his payment by his performance of it all lead to in-
creased complication of management functions.

The material equipment of a works requires special attention
to keep it in conformity with the standard. The quality of raw
material must be more carefully regulated to enable it to be
worked at the standard speeds and on the standard methods.
The elimination of waiting between jobs requires elaborate
planning of work; the making of time studies is the work of ex-
perts; the studies themselves require constant revision to suit
changes in design, working methods or material; the incentive
to output necessitates systematic inspection of work to ensure
the standards of accuracy or finish being maintained. In
these and numberless other directions work of a much higher
order than hitherto is demanded from the management staff if
the system is to function at all.

In order to enable the works management to cope with the
new demands made upon it, Taylor devised a new method of
administrative organization known as functional control, and
applied it particularly to the sphere of the shop foreman.

Under the usual methods of organization a foreman has com-
plete charge of the men under him. All instructions from the