aeroplane and in daylight. The first Zeppelin raid took place
by night on March 21 1915. The worst air raid was made on the
night of Jan. 30-31 1918, when 91 bombs fell upon the city itself
and 178 on the suburbs. The long-range bombardment began
on March 23 1918, and continued until Aug. 9, with many in-
tervals of calm, there being only 44 days upon which the Berthas
were active. The existence of such long-range artillery being
unknown when the first shells fell at an early hour of the morn-
ing, it was imagined that German aircraft, hidden high behind
the clouds, must be engaged. All work in the city was at a
standstill until noon, when the regularity with which the
projectiles exploded at intervals of about 20 minutes, and an
examination of some of their fragments, showed that a new
engine of war was at work. The first two days of bombardment
were the heaviest from the point of view of the number of shells
fired, but from the number of casualties caused, March 29,
when only one shell fell in Paris, was the most costly. That one
shell fell during Good Friday service on the church of St.
Gervais, bringing down with it a large portion of the roof; 88
people were killed and 68 wounded.

The air defences of Paris were not properly organized until
March 1918. In fact organization had not been necessary, as
German air services concentrated all their bombing raids upon
England during the years 1916-8. The results obtained by the
Paris system of air defences were as follows: on 13 different occa-
sions, on which 107 aeroplanes all-told were employed, no single
raider was able to reach Paris; of the 483 planes sent by the
enemy to Paris in 1918, only 37 reached the city, and 13 were
brought down; and only 11,680 kgm. of bombs were thrown
upon the city.

The war being over, the work of demolishing the fortifications
encircling the city was begun in 1919, in accordance with a
grandiose scheme which would give Paris another ring of
boulevards nearly 30 m. in length. It was intended that some
of the ground thus made available should be used for building
purposes, in the hope of solving the acute housing problem.
It was proposed to keep much of it as garden, and to build
numbers of well-equipped playing-grounds, and air stations
round the city. One portion of the available space, S. of the
city, was to be set apart for " University City," where accom-
modation would be provided for students of all nationalities;
to include recreation and sports grounds, swimming-baths, etc.
The site chosen is near the Pare Montsouris.

PARKER, ALTON BROOKS (1852- ), American lawyer,
was born at Cortland, N.Y., May 14 1852. He studied at the
local academy and normal school, taught for a short time, read
law in an office, and in 1873 graduated from the Albany Law
School. He was admitted to the bar and began to practise law
at Kingston, N.Y. In 1877 he was elected surrogate of Ulster
co., and was reelected in 1883. He resigned in 1885 on being
appointed by the governor justice of the N.Y. Supreme Court
to fill a vacancy, and the following year was regularly elected.
He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in
1884 and in 1885 declined President Cleveland's offer of the first
assistant postmaster-generalship. He was appointed a member
of the second division of the N.Y. Court of Appeals in 1889
and a member of the general term in 1893. In 1898 he was
elected chief justice of the N.Y. Court of Appeals. In
1904 he resigned on being nominated by the Democrats for
president, but he was defeated by Theodore Roosevelt, the
electoral vote being 336 for Roosevelt to 140 for Parker, the
popular vote 7,623,486 for Roosevelt to 5,077,971 for Parker.
He then resumed the practice of law in New York City. He was
a delegate-at-large from New York to the National Democratic
Convention in 1912. In 1913 he was counsel for the managers
of the trial leading to the impeachment of Governor Sulzer of
New York.

PARKER, SIR GILBERT, BART. (1862- ), English novelist
and politician (see 20.827), was created a baronet in 1915 and a
privy councillor in 1916. During the first two and a half years
of the World War he was engaged on the work of publicity in



34



PARKER, H. W. PARSONS



British interests in the United States, and he published The
World in the Crucible (1915) and The World for Sale (1916).
Amongst his later works of fiction are The Judgment House
(1913); The Money Master (1915); Wild Youth and Another
(1919) and No Defence (1920). He retired from Parliament in
1918 and did not seek reelection.

PARKER, HORATIO WILLIAM (1863-1919), American com-
poser and musician, was born at Auburndale, Mass., Sept. 15
1863. His talent for composition manifested itself early; before
he was 15, for example, in less than two days he set to music the
verses in Kate Greenaway's Under the Window. He studied first
in Boston, but later attended for three years the Royal Con-
servatory in Munich. After his return to America in 1885 he
was for two years professor of music in the Cathedral School of
St. Paul in Garden City, Long Island. From 1888 to 1893 he
was organist of Trinity church, New York City, and from 1893
to 1901 organist of Trinity church, Boston. In 1894 he was
appointed professor of the theory of music at Yale. Cam-
bridge University bestowed on him the degree of Mus. Doc. in
1002. Before leaving New York City he had completed his
oratorio, Hora Novissima, which was widely performed in
America. It was also given in England in 1899 at Chester and
at the " Three Choirs " festival at Worcester, the latter an
honour never before paid an American composer. While carry-
ing out the duties of his position at Yale he composed much.
His opera Mona (libretto by Brian Hooker) won the Metro-
politan Opera Company's $10,000 prize in 1911, and in 1914
his opera Fairyland (also with Hooker) was awarded another
prize of the same amount offered by the National Federation
of Women's Clubs. His cantata Morven and the Grail was
written in 1915 for the centenary celebration of the Handel
and Haydn Society of Boston. His other works include the
cantatas King Trojan and The Kobolds, the oratorios St.
Christopher and A Wanderer's Psalm, besides numerous sacred
and secular pieces. He died at Cedarhurst, Long Island, Dec.
18 1919.

PARKER OF WADDINGTON, ROBERT JOHN PARKER,
BARON (1857-1918), English lawyer and lord of appeal, was born
at Claxby Rectory, Alford, Lines., Feb. 25 1857. He was
educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he
took his degree in 1880. In 1883 he was called to the bar and
built up a large and important connexion, largely dealing with
Government work. In 1000 he was appointed junior counsel to
the Treasury, and was raised to the bench in 1006. As a judge
he earned a high reputation for great shrewdness and learning,
and in 1913 was made a lord of appeal in ordinary, being at the
same time given a life peerage over the heads of the five sitting
lords justices. In 1916 a special second division of the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council was constituted for dealing with
Prize Court appeals, and over this Lord Parker presided until
within a short time of his death at Haslemere July 12 1918.

PARKIN, SIR GEORGE ROBERT (1846- ), British educa-
tionalist (see 20.831), published ifl 1912 The Rhodes Scholar-
ships, an account of his work as organizing representative of the
Rhodes Trust (see 23.257). He was knighted in 1920. He retired
from the secretaryship of the Rhodes Trust in 1921, being suc-
ceeded first by Sir Edward Grigg, and then, on the appointment
of the latter to be private secretary to Mr. Lloyd George, by Mr.
Geoffrey Dawson, formerly (1912-9) editor of The Times.

PARMOOR, CHARLES ALFRED CRIPPS, IST BARON (1852-
), English lawyer, was born at West Ilsley, Berks., Oct.
3 1852, the son of Henry William Cripps, Q.C. He was educated
at Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he had a dis-
tinguished career. He was called to the bar of the Middle
Temple in 1877, in 1890 became a Q.C. and in 1893 a bencher.
In 1895 he was appointed attorney-general to the Prince of
Wales (being reappointed in 1901 and 1912). He sat as Con-
servative member for the Stroud division of Glos. 1895-1900,
for the Stretford division of Lanes. 1901-6 and for the Wycombe
division of Bucks. 1910-4. In 1908 he was made K.C.V.O.
Sir Alfred Cripps was well known as a strong High-churchman.
He was appointed chancellor and vicar-general to the province



of York in 1900 and vicar-general to the province of Canterbury
in 1902. He was chairman of the Canterbury House of Laymen
and a member of its committee in 1910, and chairman of the
House of Laity in the National Church Assembly of 1920. In
1914 he was appointed a member of the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council and raised to the peerage, and in 1917 he
became treasurer of the Middle Temple. He was the author
of two important works, Law of Compensation (1881, 5th ed.,
1905), and Law Relating to the Church (6th ed., 1886).

PARRATT, SIR WALTER (1841- ), English organist, was
born at Huddersfield Feb. 10 1841. He was educated privately
and at College School, Huddersfield. After some years as
organist and choirmaster to various churches, he became in
1872 organist of Magdalen College, Oxford, and in 1882 organist
of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. From 1908 to 1918 he was
professor of music at Oxford, and in 1916 was appointed dean
of the faculty of music in London University. He was knighted
in 1892, was created M.V.O. in 1901, and C.V.O. in 1917. He
wrote various important articles on musical subjects for Grove's
Dictionary of Music, and other works.

PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, BART. (1848-
1918), English composer (see 20.865), retired from his pro-
fessorship at Oxford in 1008. He acted during the World War
as chairman of the Music in Wartime Committee, and did much
to relieve the prevailing distress among poorer musicians. He
died at Rustington Oct. 7 1918, and was buried in St. Paul's
cathedral.

PARSONS, ALFRED (1847-1920), English painter, was born
at Beckington, Som., Dec. 2 1847. He was educated privately,
and in 1865 entered the General Post-Office as a clerk, but after
two years his taste for painting decided him to adopt an artistic
career. He was preeminently a painter of flowers and gardens.
He was also interested in the designing of gardens, and was a
judge at the Chelsea flower show. His picture of an orchard,
" When Nature Painted All Things Gay," was purchased by the
Chantrey fund in 1887, and he was a frequent exhibitor not only
at the Royal Academy but at the Grosvenor and New Gallery
exhibitions. Among the various special exhibitions held of his
work was one of scenes from the Warwickshire Avon (1885).
As an illustrator Parsons took a very high place, much of his
work appearing in Harper's Magazine, while among the books
he illustrated are She Sloops to Conquer, Herrick's Poems (with
E. A. Abbey), and The Danube, from the Black Forest to the
Black Sea (with F. D. Millet). He died at Broadway, Worcs.,
Jan. 16 1920.

PARSONS, SIR CHARLES ALGERNON (1854- ), British
engineer, was born in London June 13 1854, the fourth son of the
3rd Earl of Rosse. He was educated privately and at St. John's
College, Cambridge, graduating nth wrangler in 1876, and being
elected in later life (1904) an hon. fellow of the college. In 1877
he entered the Armstrong Works at Elswick, having previously
worked as a boy in his father's workshops at Birr Castle, King's
co., Ireland, where the Rosse telescope was constructed (see
2 3-74S)- In J 883 he served for a year on the experimental
staff of Messrs. Kitson of Leeds, and in 1884 entered into part-
nership with Messrs. Clarke Chapman & Co. of Gateshead.
The partnership was dissolved in 1889, and Charles Parsons,
whose invention of the Parsons steam-turbine was bringing him
into continually greater prominence in connexion with the
progress of shipbuilding, then built his own works at Heaton,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for the making of steam-turbines, dyna-
mos, searchlight reflectors and other electrical apparatus (see
25.845 seq.). Besides his chairmanship of C. A. Parsons & Co., he
became managing director of several electric supply companies,
notably at Newcastle, Scarborough and Cambridge, and also
of the Marine Steam Turbine Co. which became the Parsons
Marine Steam Turbine Co. of Wallsend-on-Tyne, owners of
the turbine patents, with ramifications throughout the engineer-
ingworld. Hewaselected F.R.S. in 1898, won the Royal Society's
Rumford Medal in 1902, was president of the Institute of Marine
Engineers 1905-6 and of the British Association 1919-20. In
1911 he was created K.C.B. During the World War Sir Charles



PASCAL PEACE CONFERENCE



35



Parsons served on many Government committees connected
with scientific research, electric power, aircraft, fuel research
and the construction of tanks.

PASCAL, JEAN LOUIS (1837-1020), French architect, was
born in Paris June 4 1837, and his architectural education was
begun at the age of 16 when he became a pupil of Gilbert.
Later, when in the studio of Questel, he entered the ficole des
Beaux-Arts, where, amongst other distinctions gained, in 1866
he won the Grand Prix de Rome. On his return to Paris in 1870,
after his four years at the Villa Medici, he was appointed in-
spector of works at the Louvre and the Tuilleries. In 1872 he
became patron of his atelier, and thereafter was appointed
assessor in public competitions, and subsequently received many
distinctions. Amongst these was his election to the council of
the Beaux-Arts and president of the jury, and to membership
of the Institut de France, and finally he became commandeur
de la Legion d'Honnenr. In his 'long career the private, as apart
from official, work of Pascal was of a very diversified nature, and
covered a wide area of ground, domestic and civil, and partic-
ularly a long series of artistic memorial monuments such as
those commemorating Col. d'Argy at Rome, Henri Regnault at
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and President Carnot at Bordeaux.
Among his buildings are the Chateau du Doux, Correze, that for
the Faculte de Medecine, Bordeaux a design with much
dignity and calm the painter Perrault's house and studio,
Paris, and several villas and chateaux in the provinces at
Pau, Beaulieu, Avignon and elsewhere. He lived long enough
to see, at the close of his busy career of over 50 years, the
completion of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, a fine building
characteristic of his learning and ingenuity, but speaking none
of the modern note of a too conscious individuality. A man of
untiring energy, Pascal's application to his atelier work and his
many professional calls did not prevent his finding time for the
literary side of architecture and he, with M. Gaudet, is respon-
sible for the splendid edition of BlondePs Architecture FratiQaise,
published under the auspices of the French Government. The
celebrated atelier of which he was for so many years the greatly
respected patron, was responsible in his time for the training
of many architects to be found later on in every country in
Europe, in the United States and in Canada. Among them
were Sir John Burnet, Thomas Hastings of New York, Signor
Beltrani of Milan and Henri Nenot of Paris. In 1914 he was
awarded the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects but his great age and state of health prevented his receiving
this in person. He died in Paris in 1920.

PASCOLI, GIOVANNI (1855-1912), Italian poet, was born at
San Mauro, Romagna, Dec. 31 1855. His first volume of verse,
entitled Myricae, appeared in 1891, and his Primi Poemetti in
1897. His other volumes include Odi ed inni (1906) ; Le Canzoni
di Re Enzio (1908) and Nuovi Poemetti (1909). He wrote also
much elegant Latin verse, and was well known both as a prose
essayist and for his Dante studies, which led to his appointment
as professor of Italian literature at the university of Bologna.
He died at Barga April 6 1912.

PASSY, FREDERIC (1822-1912), French economist and
pacifist, was born in 1822 and was a nephew of the economist
Hippolyte Passy, finance minister to Louis Philippe and to Louis
Napoleon's Republican Government. Under his uncle's influence
Frederic devoted himself to economic studies, and to that end
gave up the appointment as auditor of the Conseil de Droit,
which he had held during 1846-49. In 1860 he began to teach
political economy both in Paris and in the provinces. His first
work on the subject, Melanges economiques, appeared in 1857.
True to his republican principles, he refused to be reconciled to
the Second Empire, and remained, therefore, ineligible for any
Government post. He was an ardent free-trader and an admirer
of Cobden. In 1867 he founded the Ligue Internationale de la
Paix, afterwards known as the Societe Francaise pour 1' Arbitrage
entre Nations, and for the rest of his life he devoted himself to
the promotion of international peace. From 1881 to 1899 he was
deputy for the Seine department. In 1901 he received the Nobel
T'rize, sharing it with M. Dunant. His published works include



De la Propriele Inlellecluelle (1859); Lemons d' economic poliliqtie
(1860-61); La Democratic et I'Instruction (1864); L'Histoire
du Travail (1873); Malthus et sa Doctrine (1868); La Solidarity
du Travail et du Capital (1875) and Le Petit Poucet du icjieme
Siecle: George Stephcnson (1881). He died in Paris June 12 1912.

PATIALA, SIR BHUPINDAR SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1891-
), head of the Sikh community in India, was born Oct. 12
1891, to the soldier-sportsman Maharaja Sir Rajendra Singh,
whose death in Nov. 1900, at the age of 28, brought him to the
gad i. He was carefully trained, and on receiving full ruling pow-
ers at the close of 1910 maintained and greatly developed the pro-
gressive policy of the council of regency, applying himself with
great assiduity to the moral and material welfare of his people.
Inheriting sporting and soldierly qualities, he was a skilful polo-
player and batsman, becoming well known to British crowds
when he captained the Indian cricket eleven in 1911. He also
inherited the conspicuous loyalty of his house to the paramount
Power. In the autumn of 1914 he set out with the Indian Expe-
ditionary Force to France, but serious ill-health compelled his
return to India after reaching Aden. The contribution of Patiala
to the Indian army, including Imperial Service troops, was in-
creased from about 4,000 men to 28,000, and as the recognized
head of the Sikh race the Maharaja exercised an enormous influ-
ence in promoting recruitment from other parts of the Punjab.
His subjects saw active service in nearly all the theatres of war,
and won 125 battle distinctions. His gifts in material and money
were constant and generous. He visited his troops in France,
Palestine and elsewhere when deputed to England in the summer
of 1918 with Sir S. P. (Lord) Sinha on selection as a member of
the Imperial War Cabinet, being the second Indian prince to be
called to Empire councils. In the Punjab disturbances in the
spring of 1919 important responsibilities were assigned to him by
the British authorities, and tranquillity was maintained through-
out his state and adjacent British districts. In the third Afghan
War which immediately followed he volunteered his personal serv-
ices as well as the loan of his troops, and held a staff appointment
in a trying hot-weather campaign, not returning from the frontier
until an armistice was granted the Amir Amanulla. He took a
prominent part in promoting the inauguration of the Chamber
of Princes in 1921 and was elected to the small standing committee.
He was raised to the rank of major-general, his permanent local
salute was raised from 17 to 19 guns, and he held the grand crosses
of the Star of India, the Indian Empire and the British Empire.

PATON, FREDERICK NOEL (1861-1914), British explorer
and Anglo-Indian official (see 20.930*), died July i 1914.

PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830-1911), British Nonconformist
divine (see 20.930), died at Nottingham Jan. 26 1911.

PATTI, ADELINA JUANA MARIA [BARONESS CEDERSTROM]
(1843-1919), English singer (see 20.937), d ied at Craig-y-Nos
Castle, Wales, Sept. 27 1919.

PAYNE, JOHN BARTON (1855- ), American public official,
was born at Pruntytown, Va., Jan. 26 1855. He was educated
at Orleans, Va., read law, and was admitted to the bar in 1876.
He moved to West Virginia and practised law at Kingwood
from 1877 to 1882, during the same period serving as chairman
of the county Democratic committee. In 1882 he was elected
mayor of Kingwood, and the following year went to Chicago,
where he was engaged in law practice until 1893. Then he was
appointed judge of the Superior Court of Cook Co., 111., but
resigned after five years to resume the practice of law. In Nov.
1917 he was appointed counsel of the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
tion and also legal adviser to the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue. In 1918 he was appointed counsel of the Director-
General of Railroads and in 1919 chairman of the U. S. Shipping
Board. In Feb. 1920 he was appointed Secretary of the Inte-
rior, to succeed Franklin K. Lane, and he served to the end of
President Wilson's term.

PEACE CONFERENCE (1919). The first plenary session of
the Conference of the Powers assembled in Paris to settle the
terms of peace after the World War was held on Jan. 18 1919,
more than two months after the conclusion of the Armistice
with Germany; and the Conference remained in being from



* These figures indicate (he volume and page number of the previous article.



PEACE CONFERENCE



that date until Jan. 21 1920, when the Supreme Council met for
the last time. Even then the work of the peace settlement was
incomplete. What remained to be done was partly delegated
to a council of ambassadors at Paris, partly left to the Premiers
of the principal Powers, who continued to meet in consultation
at irregular intervals during 1920 and 1921. The Conference
separated before the Hungarians had decided to sign their
treaty, and before the terms of the partition of the Ottoman
Empire were finally agreed upon. It left the Adriatic question in
such a state that 10 months elapsed before Italy and Yugoslavia
could compose their differences. The total sum to be demanded
from Germany in the name of reparation had not yet been settled,
nor had the principal Powers finally agreed in what proportions
this sum should be divided between them. But the events of
1920 showed that most, if not all, of these questions could be
arranged without the cumbrous mechanism of a conference. An
even more momentous uncertainty, the problem of the future
attitude of the United States towards the treaties, w,ould
obviously be solved at Washington and not at Paris. But the
most urgent difficulties of the transition from war to peace
had been met, so far as diplomacy could meet them, before the
Conference was six months old; and, after the German treaty
had been signed, the doings of the statesmen at Paris no longer
excited the same interest as before. The most important of
these statesmen, except the French Premier, M. Georges Clemen-
ceau, soon made their exit. In the last days of June 1919 Mr.
Wilson returned to the United States, Mr. Lloyd George to
London. Sig. Orlando had fallen from power before the signing
of the treaty, and his successor, Signer Nitti, abstained from
visiting Paris. In July Mr. Lansing, the American Secretary
of State, withdrew, leaving Mr. Polk, his under-secretary, to
act for him. In Sept., after the signing of the Austrian treaty,
Mr. Balfour departed and Sir Eyre Crowe became the chief
British plenipotentiary. By June 28 the main outlines of the
new map of Europe were drawn; the principles which were to
govern all the treaties had been laid down; Germany had been
rendered powerless for evil, and the Austro-Hungarian Mon-
archy had ceased to exist.

The Secret Treaties and the Pre-Armistice Terms. The Allied
and Associated Powers entered the Conference with a load of
previous commitments. 1 The three chief European Allies had
to consider many secret undertakings given at critical periods
of the war. In April 1915 France and Great Britain had pur-
chased Italy's cooperation by the Treaty of London, which gave
very definite pledges regarding Istria, Dalmatia, Cisalpine Tyrol,
the Dodecanese and Adalia. In May 1916 France and Great
Britain had mapped out their future spheres of influence in the
Ottoman Empire; and in 1917 there had been consequential
arrangements with Italy. In Aug. 1916 all three Powers had
given pledges to Rumania regarding her claims on Hungarian