lation and trade of Shanghai expanded steadily, as the result of
the development of the port's railway communications with the
interior and of the increasing development of cotton-spinning,
shipbuilding and other industrial enterprises. At the same time
the wealth and importance of the foreign settlements rapidly
increased, chiefly because of the large number of Chinese officials,
capitalists and political refugees who sought there security from
the civil strife and disorders prevalent throughout the interior
after the revolution.

The city's rate of expansion is reflected in the maritime customs
returns, which show that the gross value of the trade of the port in
1919 amounted to 768 million taels, which, at an average exchange
of 55. 8d., represents 217,000,000. In 1908 the sterling value of the
trade was 40,400,000. The changed conditions of international
commerce brought about by the World War were manifested in the
fact that in 1919, for the first time, the United States took the first
place in the list of Shanghai's foreign trade, with a margin of 28 mil-
lion taels over that of Japan, thus reversing the position occupied
by the two countries in 1918. The trade of Great Britain, which
before the war headed the list, showed signs of recovering some of its
lost ground, especially in the matter of Manchester cotton goods.

The total pop. of Shanghai, as estimated by the Imperial Maritime
Customs, was 1,000,000 in 1916, an estimate which included the in-
habitants of the native city as well as those of the international and
French settlements ; but the actual total to-day must be consider-
ably higher, for the Chinese pop. of the international settlement
alone was 620,401 in 1915, and was estimated at 673,000 in June
1919. No reliable statistics are forthcoming in regard to the popu-
lation of the native city (which displays but little evidence of the
reformers' activities) nor of that of the Chinese-controlled suburbs of
the foreign settlements, but it may be assumed to be increasing,
while that of the French municipality has grown very rapidly since
its boundaries were enlarged and its area developed by a progressive
scheme of road construction. The foreign pop. of the international
settlement in 1919 was calculated to be 22,000; at the last census
(Oct. 1913) the total was 18,519, of which number 7,169 were Japa-
nese, 4,822 British, 1,323 Portuguese, 1,307 Americans and 1,155
Germans. After the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, the
number of Japanese residents increased much more rapidly than
that of any other nation, but as the franchise for the election of the
Land-renters' Executive Council is limited by property-owning or tax-
paying qualifications, the British community still retains its predomi-
nant influence in municipal affairs. The Land-renters' list at the
beginning of 1920 showed 1,100 British voters, as against 300
Japanese, 230 Americans and 150 Germans. The steady expansion
of the revenues collected by the self-governing Council of the Inter-
national Settlement (in which the Chinese Government has no juris-
diction) affords evidence of the growth and prosperity of the city
during the past decade. In 1911 the rates and taxes collected were
2,589,628 taels; in 1919 the total was 4,419,961. The street traffic
returns are significant not only of rapid growth but of changing
conditions. In 1911 the council licensed II, III jinrikishas, 1,277
carriages, 217 motor-cars, 5,310 wheelbarrows, 199 sedan-chairs
and 958 carts; the corresponding figures for 1919 were 14,726 jinrik-
ishas, 831 carriages, 1,378 motor-cars, 8,667 wheelbarrows, 18 sedan-
chairs and 2,141 carts. Industrial enterprise during this period was
greatly stimulated by the improved facilities for the transport of
raw materials provided by railway construction in the interior;
cotton-mills, in particular, increased rapidly, the number of these
at Shanghai at the close of 1920 being 26, with a total of 901,898
spindles. Factories were also established for the making of flour,
cigarettes, matches, etc., and, as in Japan, a new development of
the retail trade was manifested by the establishment of large depart-
ment stores, conducted on European and American lines.

The political importance of Shanghai, as the headquarters of
Young China and a sanctuary for political refugees of all descrip-
tions, naturally increased during and after the upheaval of the
Chinese Revolution. Many wealthy and conservative officials
of the old regime sought and found security for themselves and
their property within the limits of the extra-territorialized For-
eign Settlements; later, in 1913, the expulsion of the Kuo-Min-
tang politicians from Peking .by President Yuan led many of
these southern Parliamentarians to make Shanghai their head-
quarters, and each succeeding year of civil strife added to the
numbers of those who sought shelter from its widespread dis-



orders under the shelter of the municipality. Nor were the
political refugees all Chinese, for, after the revolt of the Koreans
against the Japanese Government in 1919, " the Provisional
Government of the Korean Republic " established itself at
Shanghai. Thus the little spot originally set apart as a place of
residence for foreign traders came by force of circumstances to
be the birthplace and centre of political activities in China, the
vernacular press at Shanghai (including several of the most
influential newspapers in the country) being generally in oppo-
sition to the policy of Peking and in sympathy with the views of
the student class. By common consent of the contending factions,
the Peace Conference convened in 1919 to discuss the differences
between the Peking Government and the southern " Constitu-
tionalists " was held in the neutral territory of the international
settlement. An interesting feature of Young China's political
activities in 1919-20 of particular importance to the future of
Shanghai lay in its increasing insistence, on the one hand, on the
abolition of the foreigners' extra-territorial rights and, on the
other, on the recognition of the Chinese taxpayers' claim to a
share in the direct executive government of the settlement, a
claim which (while morally undeniable) would, if successful,
effectively put an end to the conditions by virtue of which the
Foreign settlements have afforded security for life and property
during periods of widespread disorder in China.

See George Lanning and Samuel Couling, The History of Shang-
hai (1920). (J. Q. P. B.)

SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865- ), English
painter (see 24.801), was elected A.R.A. in 1911, and in 1918
became vice-president of the International Society of Sculptors,
Painters and Gravers. His more recent works include " The
Amethyst Necklace" (1907), "The Morning Toilet" (1912),
" The Embroidered Shawl " (1914), and " The Incoming Tide "
(1918); while in 1918 he produced various portraits, including
those of Princess Patricia of Connaught, Miss Lillah McCarthy,
and Miss Hilda Moore (" The Lady in Black "). Among his
lithographs may be mentioned " Playmates " (1908), " Ebb
Tide" (1917), "The Tidal River," and "A Sharp Corner"
(1919). In 1920 he was elected R.A.

SHAUGHNESSY, THOMAS GEORGE SHAUGHNESSY, IST
BARON (1853- ), Canadian railway president, was born at
Milwaukee Oct. 6 1853, his parents being Irish. He was educated
at St. Gall's academy, Wisconsin, and began his railway service
at the age of sixteen. In 1882 he joined the staff of the Canadian
Pacific as general purchasing agent, and by 1891 had risen to be
its vice-president. From 1899 to 1918 he was president and chair-
man of the board of directors, as well as a director of all the
allied lines. He was knighted in 1901, created K.C.V.O. in 1907,
and raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron
Shaughnessy of Montreal and of Ashford, co. Limerick, in 1916.
His two sons, William James Shaughnessy (b. 1883) and Alfred
Thomas Shaughnessy (b. 1887) served in the Canadian Expe-
ditionary Force during the World War, and the younger was
killed in action in 1916.

SHAW, ANNA HOWARD (1847-1919), American reformer, was
born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, Feb. 14 1847. When she
was a small child her parents moved to Massachusetts, and soon
afterwards to Michigan, where her father cleared a farm, 40 m.
from the nearest post-office and 100 m. from the railway. From
1872 to 1875 she studied at Albion College, Mich., and in 1878
graduated from the Theological School of Boston University.
The district conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church
granted her a local preacher's licence, and she held pastorates
at Hingham and East Dennis, Mass., remaining in the latter
place seven, years, until 1885. Meanwhile the New England
Conference of the M.E. Church refused to ordain her because
of her sex, and the refusal was upheld by the General Conference
at Cincinnati in 1880. But the same year she was ordained in
the Methodist Protestant Church. While preaching she had
studied medicine and received the degree of M.D. from Boston
University in 1885. She was then chosen lecturer for the Massa-
chusetts Woman's Suffrage Association. The following year she
was made national superintendent of franchise of the Women's






424



SHAW, G. B. SHELL-SHOCK



Christian Temperance Union, serving for six years. She was
also associated after 1886 with the National American Woman's
Suffrage Association as lecturer, vice-president-at-large, and
from 1904-15 as president, when she declined reelection. She
had spoken in every state, before many state Legislatures, and
before Congressional committees. She was a member of the
International Council of Women; the International Suffrage
Alliance; the National Society for Broader Education and the
League to Enforce Peace. In 1917 she was appointed chairman
of the woman's committee of the Council of National Defense,
and in 1918 edited for this committee a department in the Ladies'
Home Journal. She died at Moylan, Pa., July 2 1919, shortly
after the passage of the suffrage amendment to the Federal
Constitution by Congress. Her last message was an appeal to
women to use their influence for the ratification of the League
of Nations. She was the author of The Story of a Pioneer (1915,
with Elizabeth Jordan) and joint editor of The Yellow Ribbon
Speaker (1891, with Alice Stone Blackwell and Lucy Elmira
Anthony).

SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856- ), British dramatist
(see 24.812), produced on the London stage subsequently to 1910
Fanny's First Play (1911), Overruled (1912), Androcles and the
Lion and Great Catherine (1913) and Pygmalion and The Music
Cure (1914). He also produced in Dublin, or at special per-
formances in London, the one-act plays O'Flaherty, V.C. and
Augustus does his Bit (both satires on problems of the World
War), The Inca of Jerusalem and Annajanska, and published
a three-act play Heartbreak House (1919), produced in New
York, and also in a German version in Vienna in Nov. 1920. A
few months after the outbreak of war he published, as a special
supplement to The New Statesman, an outspoken deliverance on
" Common Sense and the War," which occasioned much comment
and earned him some unpopularity. In 1921 he published Back
to Methuselah. (See ENGLISH LITERATURE.)

SHAW, JOHN BYAM (1872-1919), English painter, was born
at Madras Nov. 13 1872, the son of John Shaw, registrar of the
high court of Madras. He came to England in 1878, and his first
art teaching was obtained at the St. John's Wood school of art.
He entered the Royal Academy schools in 1889, and his picture
" Rose Mary " was hung in 1893. One of his best-known works
was " Love the Conqueror " (1899). He illustrated a great
number of books, among them being Browning's Poems (1898);
Tales from Boccaccio (1899); Pilgrim's Progress (1904); Edgar
Allan Poe's Tales (1900), etc. In 1911 he established, with Rex
Vicat Cole (b. 1870), a school of art at Kensington. He died in
London Jan. 26 1919.

SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831-1912), English architect
(see 24.813), died at Hampstead Nov. 17 1912.

SHAW, SIR WILLIAM NAPIER (1854- ), British meteorol-
ogist, was born at Birmingham, March 4 1854. He was educated
at King Edward's school, Birmingham, Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1877, and the univer-
sity of Berlin. From 1887-99 he was university lecturer in ex-
perimental physics at Cambridge, from 1898-9 assistant director
of the Cavendish laboratory, and from 1890-9 senior tutor of
Emmanuel College. In 1891 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1897 he became a member of the Meteorological
Council, and was from 1900 to 1905 its secretary, in the latter
year being appointed director of the Meteorological Office. In
1907 he became reader in meteorology in the university of Lon-
don. He was president of the mathematical and physical section
of the British Association in 1908 and of the educational section
in 1919, and in 1919 was president of the International Confer-
ence of Meteorologists held in Paris. He was knighted in 1915,
and in 1920 retired from his position at the Meteorological Office.
Sir Napier Shaw's works include Life History of Surface Air
Currents (with R. G. K. Lempfert, 1906); Air Currents and the
Laws of Ventilation (1907); Forecasting Weather (1911); Manual
of Meteorology (1919) ; besides many papers in scientific journals
and valuable reports of meteorological and other subjects. He
received many honours and distinctions, including the Symons
medal of the Royal Meteorological Society.



SHELL-SHOCK, the popular name given during the World
War to an obscure form of nervous disease which became rife
among the armies. The term "shell-shock" appears to have
been officially adopted in Great Britain in 1916, although cases
to which this term might have been equally applicable had oc-
curred in the English and French armies from the beginning of
the war and onwards. It is probable, although it is not recorded,
that similar cases occurred in previous bloody wars; but never
before have such vast numbers of men been subjected to such
terrific strain, dangers and horrors from forces generated by
explosives. In consequence thereof the term "shell-shock,"
applied to all forms of war psycho-neurosis, found ready accept-
ance by the press and public, but by neurologists it was generally
regarded as a misnomer unless it were strictly limited to cases
of concussion or commotion of the brain directly caused by the
violence of the forces generated by the explosion.

Early in the war, and subsequently, cases of sudden death of
groups of men without visible external signs of injury were
recorded. They were particularly noted when the explosive
forces were generated in confined spaces, where percussion and
repercussion would be intensified in their effects upon the cerebro-
spinal fluid, which acts as a water-jacket to the central nervous
system and especially protects the vital centres in the medulla
from concussion. Carbon-monoxide poisoning was also con-
sidered a possible cause of such a death, and especially was this
likely in the case of explosion of mines or the imperfect detona-
tion of shells in closed spaces, such as dugouts, saps or ravines.
The great majority of cases diagnosed as " shell-shock " were
not commotional in origin, but emotional, and due in most in-
stances to the existence in the sufferer of an inborn timorous,
neuropathic or psychopathic disposition; but in a certain number
of cases an emotional instability was acquired by the prolonged
strain and stress of war. Thus fatigue, insomnia, anxiety and
infective disease frequently combined to cause a neuro-poten-
tially sound individual, with an excellent record of service, to
become emotive and to develop "shell-shock," the final break-
down having been precipitated by a shell bursting near to him.
The present writer had the opportunity of examining post-mor-
tem the brain in such a case, and it snowed rupture of minute
vessels and haemorrhages into the substance of the brain and
cerebro-spinal fluid.

In the absence of objective signs during life, such as ruptured
tympanum, and changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid for example,
the existence of blood it would be impossible for the medical
officers to decide whether such a case was primarily commotional
or emotional. This is an important matter, for the former was
classed as a battle casualty and entitled the sufferer to a gratuity.
The large number of British cases claiming a gratuity for "shell-
shock" led to the promulgation of Army Form W 3436, which
required circumstantial evidence by an eye-witness of the prox-
imity of the soldier to the bursting shell. Even then great
difficulties were experienced in coming to a just decision, for a
purely commotional case, if not severe, usually recovered more
rapidly than an emotional one; consequently a record of service
and the severity, character and persistence of symptons had to
be taken into account.

The diagnosis of " shell-shock " was made at the Casualty
Clearing and Field Ambulance stations, and when a barrage
was opened prior to the attack of the enemy, or other intense
shell-fire, medical officers at the front-line stations had little
time to investigate the numbers of casualties coming in, and
until the later period of the war cases of " shell-shock " were sent
to the base hospitals. The wish, in a great number of these cases
was not to go back to an intolerable situation; and fear, associated
with the instinct of self-preservation, arose as an unconscious
defence mechanism, and persisted in maintaining such hysteri-
cal manifestations as amnesia, tremors, paralyses, contractures,
convulsive tics, aphonia, mutism, blindness, deafness and other
functional sensori-motor disabilities. Whereas hysterical mani-
festations were extremely common in the ranks,they were relative-
ly rare among the officers, who suffered from neurasthenia and
anxiety neurosis instead. These two forms of psycho-neurosis



SHERMAN SHEVKET



425



in no essential manner differed from those affecting civilians of
either sex (see 14.211 and 19.432).

Among the causes which led to the prevalence of cases diag-
nosed " shell-shock " was the neurological and psychological inex-
perience of medical officers in the diagnosis and treatment of
psycho-neurosis. Another was the degree of discipline, moral
and esprit de corps in a regiment; this largely depended upon the
personality of the commanding officer, the medical officer and
the quartermaster, their efficiency in performing their duties and
their endeavours to supervise the welfare of their men so far as
the emergencies of war permitted. Thus confidence and will-
power were inspired in the men to face with them any situation,
and " shell-shock " cases were relatively few in such regiments as
compared with the number of cases in a regiment with poor moral
and discipline, where suggestion played an important part.

It is generally accepted by medical authorities in England and
abroad that the stress and strain of war, including exposure to
shell-fire, does not produce psychoses such as epilepsy, manic
depressive insanity, dementia-praecox, obsessional psychas-
thenia, or an organic disease like general paralysis, but it may
excite or reveal them. It is, however, admitted that exhaustion
or toxic psychoses with mental confusion of a temporary charac-
ter are often due solely to the stress and strain of war.

Relation of "Shell-shock" to Court-Martial Procedure. As a
result of questions in Parliament and a debate opened on April
28 1920 by Lord Southborough, a War Office committee, with
Lord Southborough as president, was constituted July 1920
with the following terms of reference:

" To consider the different types of hysteria and traumatic neurosis
called ' shell-shock ' ; to collate the expert knowledge of the service
medical authorities and the medical profession from the experience
of the war, with a view of recording for future use the ascertained
facts as to its crisis, nature and remedial treatment and to advise
whether, by military training or education, some scientific method of
guarding against its occurrence can be devised."

In the House of Lords debate, in which Lord Home, Viscount
Peel and Lord Haldane took part, a good deal of attention was
devoted to court-martial procedure, and especially in relation
to " shell-shock " and to death sentences in connexion with cow-
ardice and desertion. From what was said it seems probable that in
the early days of the war, before " shell-shock " was fully under-
stood, a few men were shot who, in the light of further knowledge
and experience, could not have been held responsible for their
actions. The question arises, When is a man who has pleaded
" shell-shock " (taken in its widest acceptance) to be held respon-
sible for and conscious of the quality of his acts? The psychology
of the emotion of fear in relation to the instinct of self-preserva-
tion and the will-power to control supplies a basis upon which to
answer this question. The emotion of fear is associated with
three instinctive reactions, as we see in animals: (i) flight; (2)
immobility; (3) concealment. In war practically every man,
even the bravest, before a battle may experience fear; but a
soldier should, by suitable training and confidence in his superior
officers, overcome this by will-power, and thus convert the pri-
mary reaction of fear into that of anger. How can a medical
officer differentiate between cowardice and fear causing an
irresponsible lack of will-power in a man to control his actions in
the face of difficulties and dangers? The doctor should know the
man's personality, his previous record and what his comrades
thought of him. It is not so much what he says as what he did,
or what he has done, which will help towards a decision. There
are, however, certain signs in a man who refuses to go forward in
action or who runs away, that show he cannot be held altogether
responsible for his action. He may be dazed in consequence of
" shell-shock " and be the subject of mental confusion; there may
be physical signs of fear over which he has no voluntary control,
namely rapid action of the heart, dilatation of the pupils, sweat-
ing, blueness and coldness of the hands, often protrusion of the
eyeballs, and an expression on the face which is hard to simulate.
These conditions, associated with trembling, are sufficient indi-
cations of true fear inhibiting the will.

Out of the psychology of fear arises the question whether
in recruiting there is any test by which the unfitness for active



service on account of a nervous disposition can be ascertained.
And, if so, whether it would be desirable to eliminate from the
army such a man without probation. It is a fact that many
highly intelligent men with nervous instability may, if suitably
trained, develop into most efficient officers and non-commissioned
officers. Much depends upon the method of training and on those
who undertake the training. A sensitive nature with self-esteem
must not be broken by harshness or injustice, which produces
a mental conflict ending in an anxiety-neurosis or neurasthenia.
It is generally admitted that under no circumstances should an
imbecile, an epileptic or an individual who has suffered with a
previous attack of insanity be recruited.

For further information the reader is referred to Parliamentary
Debates, House of Lords, Wed. April 28 1920, vol. xxxix., No. 29.
See also Sir F. W. Mott, Shell Shock and War Neurosis (1919).

(F. W. Mo.)

SHERMAN, JAMES SCHOOLCRAFT (1855-1912), American
politician, was born near Utica, N.Y., Oct. 24 1855. He grad-
uated from Hamilton College in 1878, was admitted to the bar
in 1880, and practised in Utica until 1907. In early manhood he
left the Democratic party, became a Republican, and as such
was elected mayor of Utica in 1884. In 1886 he was elected to
the National House of Representatives and was returned con-
tinuously until 1908, excepting the term 1891-3. He was a dele-
gate to the National Republican Convention in 1892; chairman
of the Republican State Convention in 1895, 1900, and 1908;
and chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1906.
For 1 2 years he was chairman of the House Committee on Indian
Affairs a subject naturally of great interest to him, as he was
a relative of Henry R. Schoolcraft (see 24.359) and the Sherman
Institute in California, an Indian school, bears his name. At the
Republican National Convention of 1908 he was nominated vice-
president on the first ballot and was elected on the ticket with