ownership. Austria had to surrender all her shipping, about
1 1 million tons. This was handed over to Italy, with the excep-
tion of about 70,000 tons for France.
Statistics. The world's output had reached a maximum of
3,330,000 tons in 1913, and was falling again in 1914. The tonnage
launched in the United Kingdom reached the record total of approxi-
mately 2,000,000 tons in 1913, and in 1914 it had decreased by over
10 per cent. Great efforts had been made in France, Germany,
Holland, Japan and Norway, and the totals in these countries
showed distinctly upward tendencies. In the United States very
great fluctuations occurred ; the output on the coast had fallen to
95,000 tons, and on the Great Lakes to 75,000 tons in 1911, while
in 1913 228,000 tons were launched on the coast and only 48,000
tons on the Lakes.
Table XI 1 1. shows the tonnage of ships launched in various coun-
tries from 1910-20. The diagram Fig. 44 has been prepared on the
basis of these figures. The striking results obtained in the British
colonies and Japan will be noted, and the overwhelming influence
of U.S. shipbuilding. Many of the American yards which were
specially constructed for war purposes were in 1921 being closed,
TABLE X. Submarines of Non-British Navies.
Navy
Date of
Launch
Length
Ft.
Displacement : Tons
Horse-Power
Speed: Knots
Armament
Surface
Submerged
Surface
Submerged
Surface
Sub-
merged
BRAZIL ....
1913
150
250
3/0
800
14
8^
2 18 in. T. T.
CHILE ....
1915
ISO
35
470
480
640
. 13
n
418 in. T. T.
FRANCE ....
1916
173
410
560
1,300
900
I3i
8
13 in.
8 18 in. T. T.
1917
243
850
1,180
2,900
1,650
17
I0j
23 m.
8 1 8 in. T. T.
ITALY ....
1915
207
700
1,000
2,600
1,300
18
10
2 14 V'dr.
6 1 8 in. T. T.
JAPAN
1917
215
700
1,070
2,600
1,300
18
IO
13 >n-
6 18 in. T. T.
UNITED STATES
1918
1 86
570
680
880
900
i3i
I0|
13 in.
4 21 in. T. T.
1918
264
1,100
1,500
4,000
1,500
20
II J
23 m.
8 21 in. T. T.
GERMANY
1914-8
Class:
U86
41
230
800
940
2,400
1,180
i6i
8
14-1 in. 13-5 m-
*
or 2 4-1 in. 4 T. T.
Ui42 ....
it
320
2,160
2,760
6,000
2,600
18
8
25-9 m.
6T. T.
UBi
ii
92
128
143
60
1 20
6J
si
I machine gun.
2T. T.
UB48 ....
ii
181
521
657
1,100
760
I3l
7i
I 4-1 in.
ST. T.
UCi
i
in
176
185
90
138
6*
5
I machine gun.
12 mines.
UCgo ....
ii
184
496
575
650
600
12
6i
I 4-1 in. 14 mines.
3 T. T.
UE7I ....
ii
1 86
762
846
900
800
ioi
8
I 3-5 in. 36 mines.
2 T. T.
UEnr ....
ii
267
1,170
i,5i5
2,400
1,150
15
71
I 5-9 in. or 2 4- 1 in.
42 mines. 4 T. T.
Deutschland (Ui52>
214
1,525
1,885
800
800
IO
5h
2 rf. 9 T in -
TABLE XI. Merchant-ships lost in the War.
Name
Tonnage
(Gross)
Country
Name
Tonnage
(Gross)
Country
' Alcantara "
.
15,831
U.K.
' Koningen Emma " .
9,181
Dutch
' Andania " .
I3-4 5
"
' Laconia "
18,099
U.K.
' Arabic "
15,801
"
' La Provence " .
!3>753
French
' Aurania "
'3 >93 6
"
' Laurentic "
14,892
U.K.
' Avenger " (ex. " Ao
1 Ballarat "
earc
a")'
13.441
11,120
ii
ii
' Llandovery Castle "
' Lusitania '
ii,493
30,096
ii
' Britannic "
.
48,158
ii
' Medina "
12,350
"
' Bonheur "
.
7,132
Norway
1 Minnehaha "
13,714
"
' Calgarian "
' Cameronia " .
17,515
10,963
U.K.
' O. B. Jennings "
' Oceanic " .
10,290
17,274
U.S.A.
U.K.
' Campania "
.
12,884
"
'Otaki" .
9,575
H
' Cap Trafalgar "
18,710
German
' President Lincoln " .
18,168
U.S.A.
' City of Adelaide "
' City of Paris "
8,389
9,239
U.K.
' Principe Umberto".
' Rotorua " .
7,929
11,140
Italian
U.K.
' Covington "
16,339
U.S.A.
' Royal Edward "
11,117
i i
' FranConia "
.
18,150
U.K.
' San Hilario " .
10,157
' Gallia "
' Glenart Castle "
14,966
6,824
French
U.K.
' Transylvania " . .
14-315
7,562
..
' Hirano Maru "
.
W|WMB
7,936
Japan
' Tubantia " . .
13.9"
Dutch
' Ivernia " .
14,278
U.K.
' Tuscania "
14,348
U.K.
' Justicia " .
32,234
'
' Volturno " .
1 1 ,496
Italian
' Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse "
13,952
German
' Yasaka Maru "
10,932
Japan
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
445
while others were falling back rapidly to pre-war conditions (see
SHIPPING: United States).
In the United Kingdom, from the middle of 1915, a committee of
the Board of Trade, in conjunction with the Transport Department
of the Admiralty, assumed control of the British mercantile marine,
including shipbuilding. A Merchant Shipbuilding Advisory Com-
mittee was formed, with Sir George Carter as chairman. In Dec.
1916 the Ministry of Shipping was set up, under Sir Joseph Maclay.
The Shipbuilding Advisory Committee was enlarged, and on its
advice steps were taken to standardize the types of merchant ships
to be built, and to simplify the details of construction both of hull
and machinery to secure the greatest and quickest output possible.
Five types of " standard ships " were designed, varying from 3,000
to 8,000 tons deadweight, and between Dec. 1916 and April 1917
considerable numbers of these vessels were ordered. In order to
harmonize the work of shipbuilding for the Admiralty and the mer-
cantile marine, the whole was placed under one authority, Sir Eric
Geddes, in June 1917, when he assumed office as controller of the
Navy. Arrangements were made for setting up new shipyards with
a view to producing " fabricated " ships, which could be put together
with very much reduced amounts of skilled labour; but the results
were disappointing, and at the end of 1918 the output in the United
Kingdom was still only at the rate of 1,500,000 tons per annum.
In March 1918 Lord Pirrie was appointed controller-general of
TABLE XII. Ownership of Some Notable ex-German Ships.
Old Name
Gross Tons
New Name
New Owners
" Amerika " ....
22,622
" America "
U.S. Government.
" Barbarossa " ....
10,984
" Mercury "
U.S. Government.
" Batavia " . c . . .
1 1 ,464
" Batavia "
French Government.
" Berlin " . ' ....
17,324
" Arabic "
White Star Line.
' Bismarck " ....
56,000
" Majestic "
White Star Line.
' Bliicher " ....
12,350
" Leopoldina "
Brazilian Government.
' Bremen " ....
11,540
" Bremen " ....
Shipping Controller (P. & O. S. Nav. Co.)
' Bulgaria " ....
11,440
' Philippines "
U.S. Shipping Board.
' Cap Arcona "...
9,832
' Cap Arcona "
U.S. Shipping Board.
' Cap Finisterre " .
14,503
' Cap Finisterre " .
Japanese Government.
' Cap Ortegal " ....
7,818
' Cap Ortegal " .
French Government.
' Cap Polonio " ....
20,597
' Cap Polonio " .
P. & O. Steam Nav. Co.
' Cleveland " .
15,746
' King Alexander "
\
(ex " Mobile ")
Byron S. S. Co. Ltd.
" Columbus "
35,ooo
" Homeric "
White Star Line.
" Friedrich der Grosse" .
" Fritz "
10,688
3,o83
" Huron "
" Assyrian "
U.S. Shipping Board.
Ellerman Line.
" George Washington " .
" Graf Waldersee " .
25,570
I3J93
" George Washington "
"Graf Waldersee "
U.S. Shipping Board.
Shipping Controller (P. & O. S. Nav. Co.)
" Grosser Kurfiirst "...
12,642
" Aeolus " '
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Imperator "
52,022
" Berengaria " . . . .
Cunard S. S. Co.
" Johann Heinrich "...
" Burchard "
19,980
" Limburgia " ....
(Koninklyke Hollandsche Lloyd).
" Kaiserin Auguste "...
24,58l
" Empress of Scotland "
Canadian Pacific.
" Victoria "
" Kaiser Wilhelm II." .
I9,36i
" Agamemnon " .
U.S. (Navy Dept.).
" Kigoma "
8,156
" Algeria "
Anchor Line.
" Coin "
7,409
" Amphion "
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Konig Albert "
10,643
" Ferdinando "
Italian Government.
" Palasciano " . . . .
" Konigin Luise "
11,103
" Omar " . . . . .
Orient S. N. Co.
" Konig Wilhelm II."
9,410
" Madawaska "
U.S. Government.
" Kronprinzessin Cecilie "
18,372
" Mount Vernon "...
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Kronprinz Wilhelm " .
14,901
" Von Steuben " ' .
U.S. Government.
" Main "
10, 1 86
" Main "
French Government.
" Moltke "
12,335
" Pesaro "
Italian Government.
" Neckar "
9,709
" Potomac "
(ex " Antigone ") .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Patricia "
14,466
" Patricia "
Shipping Controller (Ellerman Line).
" Pennsylvania "
13,333
" Nansemond " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" President Grant " .
18,072
" President Grant "...
U.S. (War Dept.).
" Pretoria "
13,234
" Pretoria "
Shipping Controller (Ellerman Line).
" Princess Alice " . . . .
10,421
" Princess Matoika " .
U.S. (War Dept.).
" Prinz Eitel Friedrich " .
8,170
" Mount Clay " .
(ex " De Kalb ") .
American S. & C. Nav. Corp.
" Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm " .
17,099
" Empress of China " .
Canadian Pacific Ocean Services, Ltd.
" Prinzess Irene " .
10,352
" Pocahontas " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Rhein "
9,959
" Susquehanna " .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Tirpitz "
19,300
" Empress of India " .
C.P.O. Services Ltd.
" Vaterland "
54,282
" Leviathan "
U.S. Government.
" Wm. Oswald "-....
20,200
" Brabantia " '.
Kon. Holl. Lloyd.
" Wittekind "
5,640
" Freedom " . _ .
(ex " Iroquois ") .
U.S. Shipping Board.
" Ypiranga "
8,103
" Assyria "
Anchor Line.
" Zeppelin "
14,167
" Ormuz "
Orient S. Nav. Co.
TABLE XIII. Tonnage Launched in 1910-20 (in thousands of tons).
Year
U.K.
Brit. Dom.
U.S.
Japan
France
Germany
Holland
Other
Countries
Total
1910
i,H3
26
331
30
Si
159
7i
116
1,957
1911
,804
20
172
44
125
256
93
137
2,651
1912
,737
35
284
58
in
375
99
2OI
2.900
1913
,932
48
276
65
176
465
104
266
3,332
1914
,684
47
2OI
86
114
387
118
216
*2,8 5 3
1915
651
22
177
49
25
(No returns)
113
163
*I,2OO
1916
608
32
504
146
43
do.
1 80
175
*i,688
1917
,163
94
998
350
19
do.
149
165
*2,938
1918
-348
280
3,033
490
H
do.
74
2O9
*5,448
1919
,620
359
4,075
612
33
do.
137
308
*7,H4
1920
2,056
204
2,476
457
93
do.
183
393
*5,862
'Returns not complete.
446
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
merchant shipbuilding and given extraordinary powers. The new
shipyards were pushed on during 1918, but had scarcely come into
active production when the Armistice was signed.
TABLE XIV. Gross Tonnage of Shipping owned in 1910-21
(in millions of tons).
Country
1910
1914
1919
1920
1921
United Kingdom and Colo-
nies
19-0
21-0
18-6
2O-6
22-1
United States
5-i
5-4
13-1
16-0
17-0
Germany ....
4'3
5-5
3-5
0-7
0-7
France
1-9
2-3
2-2
3'2
3-7
Japan
i-i
1-7
2-3
3-o
3-4
Norway
2-0
2-5
1-9
2-2
2-6
Denmark ....
0-7
0-8
0-7
0-8
I-O
Sweden
9
i-i
I'D
I-I
1-2
Italy ....
i'3
1-7
1-4
2-2
2-6
Holland. ....
I-O
i-5
1-6
1-8
2-2
All other Countries
4-5
5-6
4-6
5-6
5-5
Total, World's Shipping.
41-8
49-1
50-9
57-2
62-0
Largely as a result of the efforts of the United States, by the end
of 1918 ships were being built at the rate of 7,000,000 tons per
annum, against the pre-war record of 3,330,000 tons per annum.
In June 1920 the steam tonnage of the world amounted to about
54,000,000 tons, notwithstanding the losses of the war. The total
losses had amounted to about 9,000,000 tons of British ships and
6,000,000 tons others, making a total of 15,000,000 tons. Of the
total, 2,000,000 tons were due to ordinary marine risks.
FIG. 44.
Motor-Ships. The period 191021 saw immense changes in
the means of propulsion. In 191 1 the " Selandia " and " Jutlandia "
were launched, and a number of other vessels were being built, in
which internal-combustion engines of a more or less experimental
character were being fitted. Lloyd's Register reports that by 1914
there were 290 motor-ships of 234,000 tons gross, while in 1921 there
were no fewer than 1,447 ships of 1,263,000 tons gross, so that in
1921 there were nearly five times as many motor-ships in existence
as there were in 1914, and the tonnage ol these ships was nearly six
times as great. In these seven years motor-vessels increased from
47 to 2-1 per cent of the world's tonnage.
Dr. Diesel's master patents expired in 1909 and 1910, and since
then many successful types of internal-combustion engines have been
established in Europe and in America (see INTERNAL-COMBUSTION
ENGINES), and the proportion of motor to steam vessels building
rapidly increased. In June 1921 183 motor-vessels of 502,944 tons
were under construction, and out of this number 57 of 241,003 tons
were being built in the United Kingdom.
Oil Burners. Another very great improvement is in the use of
oil instead of coal under steam boilers. Lloyd's Register reports that
in 1914 364 vessels of 1,310,000 tons were fitted to burn oil, but in
1921 these had increased to 2,563 ships of 12,797,000 tons, or from
2-62 to 20-65% f the world's tonnage. In the United States four
vessels burn oil to every three vessels burning coal. This use of oil
fuel has demanded a large increase in the number of oil-tank
steamers. In 1914 there were 385 tankers of 1,479,000 tons, while
in 1921 there were 861 tankers of 4,419,000 tons, an increase from
2-94 to 7-16 per cent of the world's tonnage.
Electric Drive. It has been the almost universal practice for
submarines to be propelled by electric motors when submerged.
In a few cases of small surface vessels electric drive had also been
used prior to 1910. The earliest recorded appears to be Nobel's
tank vessel " Sarmat," fitted with the system in 1904. About 1910
a small vessel named the " Electric Arc " was built on the Clyde to
test the method of electric transmission devised by Mavor, using
Squirrel cage motors. The experiment was not altogether a suc-
cess, but it gave a good deal of experience. Mavor proceeded to
America and discussed his ideas with Emmet, and no doubt assisted
Emmet in the great undertaking carried out for the American navy
in the collier " Jupiter " (now aircraft-carrier " Langley "). The
American navy built three colliers at this time of identical dimen-
sions, about 20,000 tons displacement, 7,500 H.P., 15 knots full
speed, and cargo 12,000 tons. The " Cyclops " has two recipro-
cating engines, the " Neptune " has Parsons turbines and a West-
inghouse floating frame mechanical gearing, while the " Jupiter "
was fitted with a Curtis turbo-electric generator, running at 2,000
revolutions, giving alternating current at 2,200 volts, and motors
driving two propeller shafts at no revolutions. The reported engine
room weight of the " Jupiter " is 223 tons, compared with 343 tons
in " Cyclops " and 189 tons in " Neptune."
Mavor's next step was to fit up an installation of 1,500 S.H.P. in
the " Tynemount," built by Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Co. in 1913.
This vessel was 250 ft. long, 1,644 tons gross, and of about 8 knots
speed. This system, however, did not admit of development on a
large scale.
The next important progress was made in Sweden, where two sister
vessels were built, 225 ft. x 36 ft. x 15^ ft., 2,250 displacement, 975
tons gross. Each was provided with 900 H.P. for nj knots. In the
" Mimer " triple expansion reciprocating engines were fitted. In
the " Mjolmer " Ljungstrom turbo-generators running at 800 r.p.m.
were fitted, with two motors of 450 H.P. each, and geared to a single
propeller shaft running at 85 r.p.m. It was reported that fuel con-
sumption was reduced by over 40%, to -89 Ib. per I. H.P. per hour,
and that a saving of 74 tons in weight was effected. A large number
of other vessels have since been fitted on the " Ljungstrom " sys-
tem. These include the " Turbinia, " of 2,259 tons and 1,020 H.P.,
built in 1916 in Sweden, and the " Wulsty Castle," of 3,566 tons
and 1,500 S.H.P., built in 1918 by Blumer of Sundcrland. It was
reported that in 1921 there were 40 vessels building in different
countries on this system with the aggregate of 70,000 horse power.
The success of the " Jupiter " was so great that electric trans-
mission was adopted by the U.S. navy for a great many of their
later ships, even of the highest power. The next great experiment
in electrical propulsion was put in hand by the U.S. Shipping Board,
who decided to remove the mechanical gearing in 12 vessels and fit
an electric drive instead. The first vessel taken was named " Eclipse,"
the next three vessels " Archer," " Independence " and " Victo-
rious." The " Eclipse " is 440 x 56 x 35-2., of 7,589 tons gross and
11,900 dead- weight. The boilers are fitted with Dahl oil burners,
steam 215 Ib. and 200 super heated. One turbine of the Curtis
Impulse type is fitted to run at 2,000 r.p.m. A three-phased genera-
tor supplies current at 2,300 volts. An induction motor is fitted
directly on the propeller shaft working at 2,300 volts and running
at 100 r.p.m. for 3,000 H.P. The speed may range from 20 to 1 10%
of the normal. The result of the trials was very gratifying. The
reports as to the first voyage were not quite so good. The other
three vessels named had not yet gone on service in 1921.
Another very interesting case is that of the " Cuba," a vessel
310 x 40 x 26-9 of 2,963 tons gross. This vessel has also been fitted
with a turbine electric drive by the General Electric Co., Schenec-
tady, but in this case a synchronous motor is fitted. Steam of 190
Ib. with 200 super heat is supplied to an 8-stage Curtis turbine, as
in " Eclipso" This runs at 3,000 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts. The motor
gives 3,000 H.P. at 100 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts, and is fitted directly
on the shaft. The trials of this vessel were well reported on. Both
vessels are of 1 1 knots speed.
The question of the efficiency and economy of the electric drive
was being very much discussed in 1921. On the one hand it was
said that the transmission loss of the electrical system was 8%
instead of 3% with the mechanical current, but the other ships
with electrical current reported very good economy of fuel.
Wood Vessels. In 1914 wood vessels amounted to I % of the
total steam tonnage, but owine to the special building during the
war it had risen to nearly 4% in 1921. Of this large increase the
United States owns one million tons.
The Emergency Fleet programme provided for ordering 1,067
wooden and composite ships, of 3,227,200 tons; but only 607 of
1,948,250 tons, were actually produced. In June 1921 288 cargo
carriers remained in the possession of the U.S. Shipping Board, 15
being on active service and 27^5 tied up. The board also had 14 tugs,
of which 9 were on active service. Up to this date 21 1 had been sold,
12 of which had been built for service as cargo carriers and 61 as
tugs. One had been fitted for carrying oil in bulk. Seventy-four
were incomplete when sold. In Aug. 1921 the remaining wooden
vessels were reported to be sold to the Ship Construction and
Trading Company.
Concrete Ships. Prior to the war a number of small vessels for
harbour or river service had been built of ferro-concrete in Italy,
Norway and France. During the war a few experimental vessels of
small size were built in various places, and the system was adopted
to an increasing extent, practically all over the world. As larger
vessels were built, the methods received careful consideration, and
by proper development vessels up to 7,500 tons dead-weight were
successfully produced. The complication of rods and ties in the
larger vessels became very great, and sectional or panel systems
were introduced, as contrasted with the usual monolith system.
The reports as to results varied. The weight of hull was reported
to be from 50 to 100% more than for steel, or about equal to wood;
while the saving of steel for carrying a given dead-weight amounted
to 55 to 66% of the steel ship. This was an enormous advantage
during the steel shortage, and a further advantage was the power
to build by a new class of labour, giving a greater aggregate of
labour for shipbuilding. The most notable vessel was perhaps the
S.S. " Faith," built by the San Francisco Shipping Co. in 1918.
SHIP AND SHIPBUILDING
447
This vessel, 320 ft. long, 3,427 tons gross, and fitted to burn oil fuel,
was a great success. On arrival in England with a cargo the holds
were found to be absolutely dry. Table XV. gives the total tonnage
recorded of vessels of this type.
TABLE XV. Ferro-Concrete Vessels Included in " Lloyd's Register,"
1921-2.
Country
Steam and
Motor Vessels
Sai
Ves
No.
ing
sels
Total
No.
Tons
Tons
No.
Tons
United Kingdom
13
4,222
46
31,625
59
35,847
Canada (coast) .
I
320
i
320
United States
(sea) . .
15
73,894
15
73-894
Denmark
3
2,413
3
2 4I3
France .
3
2,383
I
816
4
3,199
Italy .
3
602
3
602
Norway
u
6,093
14
6,093
Spain .
I
273
i
273
Total
50
89.598
50
33,043
IOO
122,641
Large Liners. Particulars of notable Atlantic liners of recent
construction are given in Table XVI. When the " Lusitania " was
sunk during the war, the " Mauretania " (30,704 tons) was the
only pre-war 25-knot Atlantic liner left. She was followed, how-
ever by the " Aquitania " (45,647 tons), of 24 knots, launched by
John Brown & Co., for the Cunard Co., in 1914, and the " France,"
of 23,666 tons gross, launched at St. Nazaire for the Cie. Generate
Transatlantique in 1912. The " France " had turbines of 45,000
H.P. on four shafts for her 24 knots, and carried 1,926 passengers
besides her crew of six hundred. The " Aquitania " was completed
during the war as a hospital ship, but saw very little service as such.
After the war she was overhauled and fitted to burn oil fuel, so as
to carry 3,250 passengers.
In 1917 another great French liner was launched, the " Paris,"
of 33,700 tons; it was not completed until June 1921. She could
carry 98 passengers in cabins de luxe, 468 first-, 464 second-, 1,100
third-class (in cabins), also 1,100 steerage in open berths the total,
including crew, amounting to 3,900 persons. She was fitted with
four screws driven by Parsons' turbines, manufactured at Havre.
During completion she was modified to burn oil fuel on the Wall-
send-Howden system. On her first trip, with 12 boilers out of 15 in
service, she averaged 21 knots.
Of the great White Star liners, the " Adriatic," of 24,541 tons
gross, capable of carrying a total dead-weight of cargo and fuel of
19,710 tons, at a speed of i8J knots, may be taken as typical. A later
ship, the " Belgic," of 24,547 tbns gross, which was put prematurely
into service during the war (1917), could carry 22,025 tons at the
same speed. The " Adriatic," " Baltic," " Cedric " and " Celtic,"
averaging 22,600 tons gross, with a total dead-weight capacity of
over 55,000 tons, became well known to Atlantic passengers as the
" Big Four."
The White Star policy of combining comfort for passengers with
a large cargo-carrying capacity found its highest expression, how-