ment) denied the right of the Conference to limit their sov-
ereignty by special stipulations. They might have accepted
minority treaties applying exclusively to new territories ac-
quired under the peace settlement; but the Minorities Treaties
presented for their signature applied indifferently to old and new
territories alike. Eventually they were obliged to give way;
but they did not sign the Austrian treaty and the Minorities
Treaties until Dec. 10 1919, after receiving an ultimatum from
the Conference. The final ratification of the Austrian treaty
took place on July 16 1920.

Summary of Austrian Treaty. The new Austria includes the
provinces of N. Tirol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, Carinthia,
Styria (N. of the Drave), a strip of western Hungary and
Upper and Lower Austria. The treaty reserves for future deter-
mination considerable sectors of the frontier on the E. and S.E.,
but the Klagenfurt plebiscite has settled the most important
of the doubtful points in Austria's favour. Unlike Germany,
Austria has been obliged to give explicit guarantees of the rights
of her minorities; these guarantees may, however, be modified
with the assent of a majority of the Council of the League of
Nations (Arts. 62-9). Under the military clauses the Austrian
army may not exceed a total of 30,000 officers and men, and is
to be constituted and recruited by voluntary enlistment (Arts.
119, 120). Stocks of guns, munitions and equipment are re-
stricted as in the German treaty, and surplus stocks are to be
surrendered, and no air forces may be maintained. A special
section of the Reparations Commission is constituted to assess
and to collect the payments due from Austria (Art. 179); it is
to include representatives of the United States, Great Britain,
France, Italy, Greece, Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia and Czecho-
slovakia; but the four first named Powers have two votes apiece,



PEACE CONFERENCE



45



and thus constitute a majority. Besides the " reasonable sum "
to be paid before May i 1921 (Art. 181), Austria is required to
hand over all merchant ships and fishing-boats owned by
nationals of the former Austrian Monarchy, and up to 20% of
her river fleet; also animals, machinery and equipment, up to
the limits of her capacity, for the restoration of devastated
territories. Immediate delivery is required of specified quantities
of live stock for Serbia, Rumania and Italy. Austria is made
liable for so much of the Austrian war debt as is held outside
the boundaries of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy; but she is not
liable for war debt bonds which are held by other states, or by
their nationals, within those boundaries (Art. 205). All trans-
ferred territories of the monarchy are to be liable for their fair
share of the pre-war Austrian debt (Art. 203). Austria re-
nounces all claims to the state property, including royal prop-
erty, lying within the transferred territories; but the states
acquiring such property will be debited, and Austria will be
credited, with its value by the Reparations Commission (Art.
208). The commercial clauses are similar to those of the German
treaty. In the clauses relating to ports, railways and rivers,
it is provided that the old Danube commission shall be revived,
and that the Upper Danube (from Ulm downwards) shall be
controlled by a new commission on which Great Britain, France,
Italy, Rumania and the riparian states will be represented
(Arts. 301, 302). Austria is guaranteed free access by railway
to the Adriatic through the territories and the ports which
have been severed from the monarchy (Art. 311).

The Austrian treaty is supplemented by two special agree-
ments which were signed at St. Germain-en-Laye on Sept. 10
1919. By the first of these Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia and
Czechoslovakia agree with the other Allied and Associated
Powers to make separate payments, not exceeding in the aggre-
gate 1,500,000,000 gold francs, as a contribution to the costs
of liberating the territories which have been transferred to them
from the monarchy. By the second Italy agrees to make a
similar payment, in consideration of the provinces assigned to
her. None of these payments was to be made before 1926.

The Bulgarian Treaty, Nov. 241919. The Bulgarian delegates,
headed by M. Theodoroff, the Prime Minister, arrived in Paris
on July 26, but did not receive the draft treaty until Sept. 19.
The terms were not altogether unexpected, for M. Theodoroff
had lodged objections against some of them on Sept. 2. But five
weeks elapsed before the formal observations of the delegates
were presented to the Supreme Council (Oct. 24). The Bul-
garians demurred to the terms of the territorial settlement,
which were thought by critics on the side of the Allies to be too
lenient; they also complained that Bulgaria was harshly treated
in not being immediately admitted to the League of Nations.
They protested that Bulgaria could not afford to abolish con-
scription and maintain an army of volunteers, even on the small
scale prescribed by the draft treaty. The Supreme Council in
their reply (Nov. 3) promised speedy admission to the League,
but made no other concession of substance. Further remon-
strances from the Bulgarians merely led M. Clemenceau to
intimate (Nov. 5) that the treaty as it stood must be either
accepted or rejected within ten days. By this time M. Theo-
doroff had resigned office. His party had been severely defeated
at a general election held in Aug., and he shrank from the
invidious responsibility of signing the treaty. A new Govern-
ment was formed by the leader of the Agrarian party, M.
Stambolisky; and, on Nov. 13, Bulgaria's acceptance of the
inevitable was notified to the Supreme Council. The treaty was
signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine on Nov. 27, M. Stambolisky acting
as the sole signatory for Bulgaria.

The general principle of the territorial terms is to restore the
frontiers of 1914; but Bulgaria cedes to the principal Powers
the share of Thrace which had been left to her by the Treaty of
Bucharest; the Powers undertake to provide (by arrangement
with Greece) outlets for Bulgarian trade on the Aegean. Certain
districts are transferred (for strategic reasons) from Bulgaria
to Yugoslavia; the most important of these districts contains
the town of Strumitza. It is stated that further transferences of



territory to Yugoslavia were considered at the Conference, but
were rejected on ethnological grounds as they would have
affected districts in which the Bulgarian nationality prepon-
derates. The reparation terms are more definite than those of
the German and Austrian treaties. Bulgaria is required to pay
2,250,000,000 gold francs by half-yearly instalments extending
over a period of 37 years. An inter- Allied commission of three
members (representing France, Great Britain and Italy) will
remain in Bulgaria to see that the reparation terms are duly
honoured. This body will decide how the half-yearly payments
are to be raised. It will prepare a list of the taxes and other
revenues which are to be appropriated to reparation. If Bulgaria
makes default in respect of any instalment, the commission
may assume the duty of collecting the appropriated revenues.
The commission may also recommend the Central Reparations
Commission to give a time of grace for any particular instal-
ment, or to reduce Bulgaria's liability. Such a recommendation
will take effect if it is endorsed by a majority of the Reparations
Commission. Bulgaria must provide, by way of restitution,
specified quantities of live stock for the devastated areas in Greece,
Rumania and Yugoslavia. She must also supply Yugoslavia
with 50,000 tons of coal annually for five years. The maximum
size of the Bulgarian army is fixed at 20,000 officers and men,
raised by voluntary enlistment; but Bulgaria may maintain
gendarmes, customs officials, forest guards and some other kinds
of police and frontier guards (all armed with rifles) up to the
number of 13,000. All Bulgarian war-vessels (including sub-
marines) are to be surrendered or broken up, except four tor-
pedo-boats and six motor-boats. No air forces may be main-
tained, no submarines may be built or otherwise acquired. The
importation of arms and munitions is prohibited; only one
munitions factory is permitted. No new fortifications may be
constructed in Bulgaria.

The Hungarian Treaty, June 4 1920. The Hungarian delegates
did not appear in Paris until Jan. 7 1920, and over six months
elapsed before the Treaty of the Trianon was signed. But the
main features of this treaty had been settled long before the
Peace Conference dissolved. Except in the territorial terms it
was closely parallel to the Austrian treaty. The Supreme
Council had informed Bela Kun on June 13 1919 what territories
would be transferred to Czechoslovakia and Rumania; and on
July 20 1919 the German districts of western Hungary were prom-
ised to Austria. But some time elapsed before Hungary acquired
a Government which commanded the confidence of the Allies.
Late in July 1919 Bela Kun was overthrown by the Rumanians,
whom he had attacked on the line of the river Theiss. The
Rumanians then occupied Budapest, and permitted the Arch-
duke Joseph to assume the title of Administrator, with the
support of a number of ex-officers (Aug. 6). The Archduke
applied to the Supreme Council for recognition; but the Council
insisted that he should resign, and that steps should be taken
to form a coalition Government (Aug. 22). The Archduke then
effaced himself, but his Premier, M. Friedrich, remained in
office until the Rumanians evacuated Budapest in November.
At last on Nov. 24 a coalition Government was formed under
M. Huszar, and M. Friedrich joined the new Cabinet as Minister
for War. M. Huszar was promptly recognized by the Supreme
Council (Dec. i), in spite of the fact that the strength of his
position had not yet been tested by a general election. This,
however, took place early in 1920 and produced a National
Assembly whose sentiments were comparatively reasonable.
The draft treaty was handed to the Hungarian delegates on
Jan. 15 1920, a week before the termination of the Conference;
the negotiations were left to be conducted by the Council of
Ambassadors. On Feb. 12 the Hungarians presented counter-
proposals and observations which were the reverse of con-
ciliatory. They argued that the position of the Magyars in
Hungary was an exact parallel to that of the Czechoslovaks in
Bohemia, and asked why the principle of self-determination
had been differently applied to the two cases. They asked that
the Szeklers of E. Transylvania should be left under Hungarian
rule; that all the territories which Hungary was required to



4 6



PEACE CONFERENCE



surrender should remain within the Hungarian customs regime
for a period of years; that no territories should be transferred
without a plebiscite, or, alternatively, that better safeguards
should be provided for the rights of Magyar minorities. These
requests came too late for serious consideration. All the am-
bassadors would promise was that the League of Nations should
be free to consider any minor rectifications of boundaries which
the frontier commissions might recommend on ethnological or
economic grounds. It is remarkable that this reply, which only
involved small alterations in the draft treaty, was not trans-
mitted until May 6. There was one Hungarian pretension with
which the Allies dealt more promptly. The Huszar Government
claimed that Hungary was still a monarchy, though the royal
dignity was in suspense; it was no secret that many Hungarians
still desired a Habsburg dynasty. But on Feb. 2 1920 Great
Britain, France and Italy declared that a Habsburg restoration
in Hungary would violate the fundamental principles of the
peace settlement. The Hungarian royalists did not even then
abandon all hope; the monarchical character of the constitution
was reaffirmed by the Government on March 23. But since the
signature of the Treaty of the Trianon the three states of
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Rumania have combined in a
" Little Entente " which avowedly exists to defeat any Hun-
garian project for a Habsburg restoration.

The only parts of the Hungarian treaty which call for com-
ment are those which fix the future boundaries of Hungary and
the allocation of the transferred provinces. On the N. the new
frontier gives to Czechoslovakia the southern slopes of the Car-
pathians, mainly though not entirely populated by Slovaks.
To provide Czechoslovakia with a frontage on the Danube and
to secure the economic unity of the Carpathian territories, the
frontier line has been so drawn as to place large Magyar popula-
tions under Czechoslovak rule. Similarly Rumania receives not
only Transylvania, in the E. of which there is a compact Magyar
(Szekler) minority, but also a broad strip of the Hungarian
plain to the W., in which the chief towns are Magyar, in order
that Transylvania's railway communications with the Danube
may be adequately secured. The Banat, which is divided
between Rumania and Yugoslavia, has a mixed population, pre-
dominantly Slav in the western and predominantly Rumanian
in the eastern half of the province. The German element in the
eastern Banat is considerable and would no doubt have pre-
ferred to remain under Hungarian rule. But the chief difficulty
which the Conference experienced in dealing with the Banat
was the adjustment of the conflicting claims of Yugoslavia and
Rumania. For the Allies, in their secret treaty of Aug. 1916
with Rumania, had promised her the whole of the Banat,
without regard to the historic claims of Serbia. At the Con-
ference M. Bratianu pressed for the fulfilment of the secret
treaty. He was met with the reply that Rumania herself had
cancelled it by making peace with the Central Powers in May
1918; but he continued to reiterate his demands until the terms
of the partition of the Banat were irrevocably settled by the
Conference and announced to the world (June 13 1919). To
this incident were due the Rumanian occupation of Budapest,
the intrigue with the Archduke Joseph (which seems to have
included a plan for the union of the Rumanian and Hungarian
crowns) and the delay of Rumania in signing her Minorities
Treaty.

Like Austria, Hungary is precluded from alienating her in-
dependence, except with the consent of the Council of the
League of Nations (Art. 73). She is required to pay a reasonable
sum, fixed by the Reparations Commission, before May i 1921;
her total liability will be fixed by the same body (Arts. 163, 165)
and the balance is to be paid in half-yearly instalments over a
period of 30 years, unless payment is respited or remitted by
the Allies. She is to surrender all her merchant shipping, up to
20% of her river fleet, and an indefinite quantity of live stock
(at the discretion of the Reparations Commission) for devastated
countries.

The Adriatic Question. When the Italian plenipotentiaries
reappeared at Paris in May 1919 they were offered by the



American delegation the so-called Tardieu Compromise, under
which Fiume and its hinterland would have constituted an inde-
pendent state for 15 years, and a plebiscite would afterwards
have been taken to ascertain the views of the inhabitants. To
this compromise, it is alleged, Sig. Orlando gave his consent;
but the Yugoslav delegates insisted on unacceptable amend-
ments, and the American attempt at mediation was dropped at
that time. Subsequently the Italian poet D'Annunzio, at the
head of a band of volunteers, occupied Fiume (Sept. 12) while
fresh negotiations were in progress (at Washington) between Mr.
Wilson and the Italian Government. In spite of this coup d'etat,
which was disavowed by Italy, the American negotiations con-
tinued; by Oct. 27 Italy had agreed that Fiume should be a free
state under the protection of the League of Nations and had
resigned her claims on Dalmatia, while Mr. Wilson was pre-
pared to recognize Italy's sovereignty over the Pelagosa group,
Lissa, Lussin, Unie and the port of Valona. The Adriatic posi-
tion was then examined more minutely at Paris by M. Clemen-
ceau, Sir Eyre Crowe and Mr. Polk. These three proposed that
Italy should be offered a protectorate over the Dalmatian city
of Zara, but that she should be asked to abandon her demands
upon the isle of Lagosta and the eastern part of Istria, and also
her proposal that the city of Fiume should be made independent
of the free state of Fiume. The offer did not satisfy Sig. Nitti,
who intimated that Italy, in default of a more acceptable scheme
for a compromise, would take her stand on the secret Treaty of
London. To this Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau replied
that they too were willing in the last resort to abide by that
treaty, but on Jan. 14 1920 they offered new terms which were
distinctly more favourable to Italy than those of Dec. 9 1919.
The new terms were drafted after Mr. Polk had left Paris for
Washington, and were presented to Sig. Nitti before the U.S.
Government had been consulted regarding them. Accordingly
Mr. Lansing intimated, on Jan. 20, that Mr. Wilson could not
admit the right of France and England to modify, on their own
responsibility, the only terms of compromise to which an
American representative had subscribed. The French and
British Prime Ministers argued, in reply, that their new pro-
posals were actually more favourable to Yugoslavia than those
of Dec. 9, and were intended to save France and England from
the necessity of honouring the Treaty of London, to which, as
was notorious, Mr. Wilson had always objected. But on Feb.
10 Mr. Wilson stated precisely his objections to the terms of
Jan. 14. They gave to Italy the whole of Istria and the prospect
of a future protectorate over Fiume. They also provided for
the partition of Albania between Yugoslavia, Italy and Greece.
Mr. Wilson stated that he could not cooperate with the European
Allies if they allowed the admitted principles of justice to be
overborne " by the country possessing most endurance in
pressing its demands." The upshot of the controversy was that
Italy and Yugoslavia were left to settle their differences, if they
could, by separate negotiations, with the proviso that they must
not come to terms at the expense of Albania. It took some
time to reach this consummation. But on Nov. 12 1920 Italy
and Yugoslavia concluded the Treaty of Rapallo, and on Jan. 2
1921 D'Annunzio's garrison at Fiume surrendered to the Italian
Government. Albania, thanks to Mr. Wilson's intervention,
has established an independent Government and has been ad-
mitted (Dec. 17 1920) as a member of the League of Nations.
The Adriatic question was thus provisionally settled, nearly a
year after the close of the Conference, but still on lines which
the Conference had suggested.

The Turkish Treaty. The Turkish question was discussed
at Paris in May and June 1919, but the drafting of the Turkish
treaty was not seriously taken in hand until the London Con-
ference of Feb. 1920. This delay was due partly to the hope
(unhappily falsified) that the United States would join in the
treaty; but also to difficulties arising out of the allocation of
mandates for the non-Turkish portions of the Ottoman Empire.
The twelfth of the Fourteen Points provided that these ter-
ritories should receive " unmolested opportunity of autonomous
development." Article 22 of the Treaty of Versailles indicated



PEARCE PEARSE



47



that some at least of them would be recognized as independent
nations, under such mandatories as they were willing to accept.
The principal claimants for these mandates were France and
Great Britain, who in May 1916 had come to an understanding
about their future spheres of influence (the Sykes-Picot agree-
ment), on the basis that the French sphere should include
Cilicia, Southern Armenia and Syria (with autonomy under
French protection for Damascus, Aleppo, 'Urfa, Deir and
Mosul); that Palestine should be an international territory; and
that Haifa and Mesopotamia should be in the British sphere.
But Greece claimed the whole of Turkish Thrace, Smyrna (which
she occupied with the approval of the Supreme Council in May
1919) and the Aegean Is.; while Italy claimed the Dodecanese
(of which she had retained possession at the end of the Libyan
war in 1912) and a sphere of influence on the adjacent main-
land. There were difficulties connected with all these claims.
The most notorious conflict of interests was that between France
and the Hejaz (over the Arab districts of Syria), which came
to a head in March 1920 with the proclamation by a " Syrian
National Congress " of an independent Syria (to include the
Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia) and of Faisal, the heir
apparent of the Hejaz, as the king of this state; but there were
also doubts as to the wisdom of allowing Greece to assume re-
sponsibility for Smyrna, and as to the possibility of reconciling
the French and Italian claims with Mr. Wilson's promise to
respect the political unity of the Turkish race. The future of
Constantinople was long in doubt. At last on Feb. 16 1920 the
Conference of London announced that it would remain the
Turkish capital; but, a month later, the Allies informed the
Turkish Nationalists that this concession was conditional on
their good behaviour, and Constantinople was temporarily
occupied by Allied troops under the command of Gen. Milne.
On April 24 the Conference of San Remo gave mandates to
France for Syria, Cilicia and the Lebanon; to Great Britain for
Palestine and Mesopotamia; a mandate for Armenia was de-
clined first by the League of Nations (April 27) and afterwards
by the United States Senate (May 27). At last on May n the
draft treaty was handed to the Turkish delegates at Sevres.
Its terms produced considerable excitement among the National-
ists, and it was necessary for the Allies to call upon the Greeks
to make armed demonstrations both in Asia Minor and in
Thrace. But at the Conference of Spa (July) the last touches
were put to the treaty and on Aug. 10 it was duly signed by
the Turkish delegates.

Under the treaty Constantinople is left to the Sultan, with the
proviso that it may be forfeited if Turkey violates the terms of
settlement, especially those by which she guarantees the rights
of minorities in her territory. In accordance with the Fourteen
Points the Straits are neutralized and placed under the control
of an international commission. Smyrna, with about half its
vilayet, is left under Turkish sovereignty, but this sovereignty
will be exercised by the Greek Government, and Smyrna may
be incorporated in the Greek customs area. There is to be a
local legislature, which may, if it so desires, petition the League
of Nations (within five years) for the incorporation of Smyrna
in the Greek kingdom. Greece also receives, in full sovereignty,
Thrace outside the zone of the Straits, Imbros, Tenedos, Lemnos,
Samothrace, Mytilene, Chios, Samos and Nikaria. But she may
not fortify the first five of these islands (owing to their proximity
to the Straits); and she engages to sign a minorities treaty.
Armenia is declared a free and independent state; the boundary
between Turkey and Armenia is to be referred to the arbitration
of the President of the United States. Syria, Mesopotamia and
Palestine are recognized as independent states; their boundaries
will be fixed by the principal Powers, and they are to be ad-
ministered by mandatories, on terms formulated by the prin-
cipal Powers and submitted to the Council of the League of
Nations for approval. The Hejaz is recognized as a free and
independent state. Turkey cedes to Italy the islands of Astro-
palia, Casso, Scarpanto, Rhodes, the Dodecanese and Castel-
loryzo. The British protectorate over Egypt and the British
annexation of Cyprus are confirmed. The chief feature of the



military clauses is the proviso that Turkey may maintain no
military forces except the Sultan's bodyguard, and gendarmes
and frontier guards not exceeding 50,000 in number. The
Allies waive their claims for reparation. But Turkey is to pay
the costs of the armies of occupation ;ince the Armistice of Oct.
30 1918, and to compensate civilian nationals of the Allies for
loss or damage suffered in the war through the action or neg-
ligence of the Turkish authorities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. All the treaties have been published by the Sta-
tionery Office. Supplementary documents are printed in the His-
tory of the Peace Conference, vols. i.-iii., ed. H. W. V. Temperley
(i92O-|-i), which also comments exhaustively on the German treaty,
and gives an account of proceedings up to June 28 1919. Three