had been arranged is a true temperature sequence. This order, pre-
viously indicated by Secchi and Vogel, is now generally expressed
by the classification introduced at Harvard by E. C. Pickering, in
which the most important classes, passing from the white to the
redder stars, are designated by the letters B, A, F, G, K, M. s On
passing from the relatively cool M stars to the hot B stars, it is
necessary, in accordance with the work of Lockyer, to employ a
gradually increasing stimulus in order to excite the spectra which
appear at successive stages of the stellar sequence.
There are certain peculiarities of the successive stellar spectra
which call for explanation, if it be assumed that all stars are of essen-
tially the same composition. Thus, at every stage of the stellar
sequence there are many elements which are not represented at all,
and different selections of the elements appear at the various stages.
The earlier attempts to deal with such questions are incompatible
with modern views as to the origin of spectra. The new theory of
spectra, however, supplemented by a theory of the temperature
radiation of gases, has been shown by Dr. M. N. Saha * to provide a
very probable explanation of most of the phenomena. According to
this theory, a gas or vapour may emit radiations, or become ionized,
by subjecting it to appropriate thermal stimulus, depending in part
upon the density, and the emissions produced mechanically by the
spark may thus also be generated by the action of a sufficiently high
temperature. Dr. Saha concludes that, under the temperature stimu-
lus prevailing in the atmosphere of any particular star, certain ele-
ments are excited to radiation of their characteristic lines, in accord-
ance with their resonance and' ionization potentials, while other
elements are either ionized, or the stimulus is too weak to excite
the lines by which their presence could be recognized. When an ele-
ment is completely ionized in this way, it will often happen that the
most characteristic lines of the modified atoms will he far in the
ultra-violet, outside the range of possible observation, so that the
element will escape detection. Again, under the action of the highest
temperatures, a second step in ionization may set in, producing still
more refrangible chief lines as a rule, so that even the elements which
yield enhanced lines in the ordinary range of spectrum at some stages
will eventually cease to be represented. The simplification of_the
spectra of the hotter stars thus receives an acceptable explanation ;
the surviving elements represented in the spectra are those for which
the maximum amount of energy is required to produce the succes-
sive ionizations, or those for which these conditions yield lines of
sufficient intensity within the range of spectrum which is open to
observation. Preliminary calculations of the probable temperatures
at which such changes of spiectrum would occur are in substantial
agreement with the temperatures of the various classes of stars
deduced from spectro-photometric observations^ by Wilsing and
Scheiner. It therefore seems probable that temperature is the con-
trolling factor in determining the character of the spectrum given
by a star, and, as Dr. Saha remarks: " The stellar spectra may be
regarded as unfolding to us, in an unbroken sequence, the physical
processes succeeding each other as the temperature is continually
varied from 3000 to 40,000."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. To the works mentioned in the earlier article
the following should be added: Eder and Valenta, Atlas typischer
Spektren (1911); P. 'Zeeman, Researches in Magneto-Optics (1913);
J. Stark, Die Atomionen chemischer Elemente und ihre Kanalstrahlen-
spectren (1913) ; T. Lyman, The Spectroscopy of the Extreme Ultra-
violet (1914); A. Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spektrallinien (1921);
L. Silberstein, Report on the Quantum Theory of Spectra (1920);
A. L. Hughes, " Report on Photo-Electricity, including Ionising
and Radiating Potentials and Related Effects," Bull, of National
Research Council, Washington (1921); A. Fowler, Series in Line
Spectra, Phys. Soc., London (1921). (A. F.)
SPEE, COUNT MAXIMILIAN VON (1861-1914), German
admiral, was born June 23 1861 at Copenhagen. He was first
officer of the battleship " Brandenburg " when it was sent to
East Asia in 1899 during the Chinese boxer disturbances. In
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, xci., 498 (1915).
1 Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Ixxvii., 511 (1917).
1 The work of H. N. Russell, in general agreement with that of
Lockyer, renders it probable that the true sequence is from M
to B with increasing temperature, and thence from B to M with
decreasing temperature, the density increasing throughout. Stars
of rising temperature, on account of their great volume, have been
called " giants," those of falling temperature " dwarfs." Differences
between the spectra of giants and dwarfs of the same spectral class
have been found by Adams (see Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Ixxxi., 334).
4 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, xcix., 135 (1921).
1908 he was chief of the staff of the North Sea command, and in
1913 he was appointed chief in command of the Cruiser Squadron.
When the World War broke out he was on a voyage with this
squadron from Tsing-tau to the South Sea Islands. He was hard
pressed by British and Japanese naval forces, but was at an
advantage when he was engaged on Nov. i 1914 off Coronel on
the Chilean coast by Adml. Cradock with a British squadron
which was inferior to his own in numbers and speed, as well as in
range and weight of fire. Adml. Cradock went down with his
ship, the " Cape of Good Hope," and the " Monmouth " was
also sunk. On the following Dec. 8 Count Spec's squadron was
drawn into action off the Falkland Is. by the powerful cruiser
squadron of Adml. Sturdee which had been sent out to look for
him. Count Spec's own ship, the " Scharnhorst, " was sunk, he
himself and his two sons going down with all hands. The
" Gneisenau " was also sunk, as were the " Leipzig " and the
" Nurnberg." The light cruiser " Dresden " escaped, but was
afterwards sunk off Juan Fernandez in the Pacific.
SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1829-1911), German novel-
ist (see 25.667), published during his later years Freigeboren
(1900); Die schonen Amerikanerinnen (1902); Ultimo (1903);
and Am Wege (1903). He died at Charlottenburg, Berlin, Feb.
25 1911.
SPIERS, RICHARD PHENE (1838-1916), English architect
and author. Phene Spiers occupied a unique position amongst
the English architects of the latter half of the igth century, his
long mastership of the architectural school at the Royal Academy
having given him the opportunity of moulding and shaping the
minds of more than a generation of students. He was educated
in the engineering department of King's College, London, and
proceeded thence to the atelier Questel of the Ecole dcs Beaux-
Arts, Paris, for upwards of three years, a method of study rare
for an architectural student in those days. On his return he won
the gold medal and travelling scholarship of the Royal Academy,
and in 1865 the Soane medal of the R.I.B.A. In 1871, after he
had worked in the offices of Sir Digby Wyatt and William Bur-
ges, he gained second premium with a spirited design (showing a
good deal of the Neo-Grec feeling consequent on his French train-
ing) for the new Criterion building, London. His work of about
this period included Lord Monkswell's house, Chelsea. Pheng
Spiers travelled in France, Spain, Egypt, Syria and the East, and
besides his record of more purely architectural data, he made
many water-colour sketches showing much talent and facility.
He was a frequent exhibitor at various galleries, and a good
specimen of his art the loggia at Hampton Court is in the
Victoria and Albert museum. His works and publications were
many, and covered a wide ground. Amongst them are his new
edition of James Fergusson's History of Architecture and the
further volumes on Indian and Eastern art; Architectural Draw-
ing; The Architecture of Greece and Rome (conjointly with the late
W. J. Anderson) ; The Mosque at Damascus; and the articles on
Persian and Roman Architecture in Dr. Russell Sturgis's Dic-
tionary of Architecture, besides an edition of Pugin's Normandy.
For the E.B. Spiers wrote most of the articles dealing with ar-
chitecture. The position to which his erudition and ability en-
titled him was fully recognized in other countries as well as his
own,"as is shown by his election to membership of many foreign
societies in France, Spain and America. He died in London
Oct. 3 1916.
SPIRITUALISM: see PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.
SPITSBERGEN (see 25.708). The highest peaks in Spits-
bergen are believed to be Mount Newton, 5,676 ft., and Mount
Poincare, 5,446 ft., both in the eastern part known as New
Friesland. Mount Eidsvoll in King James Land is 4,770 ft. and
Mount Monaco on Prince Charles Foreland is 3,543 ft.
Geology. Considerable exploration has not greatly modified the
main conception of the geological structure. The old rocks of the
W., generally described as the Hekla Hook series, seem to be o
Silurian age to which may also be ascribed the so-called Archaean
rocks of the N.W. There are no Permo-Carboniferous rocks in King
lames Land'and the strips of rocks on the N.E. side of Prince Charle
Foreland and the opposite shores of the mainland, formerly attrib-
SPORTS AND GAMES
563
uted to that age, are now known to be Tertiary. Certain of the coal
measures in Advent Bay prove to be of Cretaceous and not Tertiary
age and these Cretaceous beds probably appear also below the
Tertiary beds in Lowe Sound.
An extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of
75 to 82 F. were discovered in Bock Bay, off Wood Bay, in 1910.
The volcano seems to date from a later period than any other
volcanic manifestation found in Spitsbergen. Research has proved
that dislocation has played a great part in determining the main
features of the fiord system, especially in Ice Fjord where the
course of the fjord has been decided by great faults.
Climate. From the meteorological data now available, including
eight years' records from Green Harbour, the following means may
be given: Cape Thordsen, Jan. 0-3 F., July 39-9 F. ; Green Har-
bour, Jan. 6-7, July 39-7; Axel I. (Lowe Sound), Jan. 1-6, July
40-3; S.E. of Edge I., Jan. 1-5, Aug. 37-4; Bear I., Feb. 10-4,
Aug. 40-1. The mean annual precipitation at Green Harbour is
1 1 -6 in.; Prince Charles Foreland has more and the interior of
Spitsbergen less.
Exploration. There is little doubt that the land called Sval-
bard ("cool coast") in the Icelandic annals, discovered by
Norsemen in 1194, was really Spitsbergen. If Spitsbergen was
forgotten by the Norsemen it was possibly rediscovered by
Russian hunters from the White Sea in the i5th or i6th cen-
turies or at least previous to Barents' rediscovery in 1596.
Recent exploration in Spitsbergen has been devoted mainly
to geological work, largely with economic ends in view, and
detailed cartographical survey. A German expedition under Lt.
Schroeder-Stranz in 1912 came to grief on the N. coast, after the
loss of the leader. Half the staff were lost and the survivors
were rescued by Norwegians under A. Staxrud.
The principal survey work has been done by Norwegians working
in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the
Norwegian State. These parties have been successively com-
manded by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, and have mapped
in detail the western side of the mainland from the N. coast to the
South Cape. The work is expedited by the use of photogrammetric
methods to assist triangulation. The detailed survey of Prince
Charles Foreland has been completed by Dr. W. S. Bruce and
assistants who have also mapped the area between Klaas Billen and
Sassen bays. Swedish surveyors have mapped the land round Lowe
Sound and Braganza Bay. The Prince of Monaco has shown con-
tinued interest in Spitsbergen exploration by giving assistance to
several explorers, including the Swiss H. Stoll who in 1913 crossed the
unknown country between Lowe Sound and Agardh Bay on Stor
Fjord. Lt. W. Filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region
between Temple Bay and Mohn Bay. In 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled
several of the highest peaks on theW. coast, including Mounts
Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. Hydrographic surveys have been
carried out by G. Isachsen and others on the W. coast and in Green
Harbour, by W. S. Bruce in Foreland Sound, Klaas Billen and
Sassen bays and Stor Fjord. Swedish Government surveyors have
been at work in Lowe Sound. Oceanographical work has been done in
Spitsbergen waters by Dr. F. Nansen. The Norwegian Government
has maintained a wireless telegraph station and meteorological
observatory in Green Harbour since 1911. A German meteorological
station was founded in Eleltoft Haven, Cross Bay, in 1910 as the
outcome of a visit by Prince Henry of Prussia and Count Zeppelin
when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted. This
station was abandoned in Sept. 1914. In 1920 Norway opened a
new meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geo-
magnetic research. Besides the Norwegian state wireless station
at Green Harbour, there were in 1921 seven others (4 Norwegian,
2 English and one Swedish). In Aug. 1921 a Norwegian Church
was consecrated at Longyear City.
Mining. The development of the coal-fields has proceeded
rapidly, greatly stimulated during the war by the scarcity and
high price of coal in Scandinavia. The coal-mine in Longyear
Valley, Advent Bay, which had been under American owner-
ship since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Norwegians who have been
assiduous in their export. Several other Norwegian mines have
started, notably in Kings Bay, Green Harbour and Hjorth
Haven in Advent Bay. Swedish mines were opened in Lowe
Sound (Braganza Bay) in 1917. There are Russian mines in
Green Harbour and Dutch mines at Cape Boheman. British
enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in 1919 in the
coal-bearing areas in Klaas Billen Bay and Lowe Sound. By
1920 practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one
or other company and at least five mines had reached the export
stage. The total amount of coal exported in 1919 was 90,000
tons, all of which went to Norwegian ports, including some to
Narvik for the Swedish railways. The coal exported so far is of
Tertiary and Cretaceous age and proves to be good steam coal.
Bituminous coal of Carboniferous age will soon be available for
export. Jurassic coal occurs but is of poor quality and no longer
worked. Mining continues throughout the year but the export
season at present is from June to Sept. The largest mining camp
is Longyear City in Advent Bay, housing some 400 men in sum-
mer and 300 in winter. No other minerals besides coal are as
yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36%
iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zinc
and asbestos. Signs of oil have been reported. A Norwegian
company is exporting coal from Bear Island. The approximate
area (in sq. m.) of estates owned by various nationals in Spits-
bergen is as follows: British 6,500, Norwegian 900, Swedish 400,
Russian 60 and Dutch 10. Whaling was revived in Spitsbergen
waters in 1905, abandoned in 1912 and restarted during the
World War. The only station is now in Green Harbour. Winter
fur-hunting is pursued by a few Norwegians.
Political History. The question of political control had been
discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and
Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen there-
fore occupied the curious position of being terra nullius. In 1907,
however, Norway again opened negotiations for an interna-
tional conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one
was held at Christiania in July-Aug. 1910, followed by another
in 1912, without definite result. In July 1914 a conference
which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium,
the United States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form
of administration consistent with the country remaining a
terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to
the discussions. In 1919 the Supreme Council conferred the
sovereignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I., on Norway. The
signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British
Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland,
Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The rights and territories of
nationals other than those of Norway are safeguarded, and
Norway is not allowed to show preferential treatment to Nor-
wegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expendi-
ture on the administration. Disputed claims to estates were to
be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a Dane.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. -The literature is in the main scattered in period-
ical publications: specially useful are Ymer (Stockholm), Viden-
skapsselskapets skrifter (Christiania), Naturen (Bergen), Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine and Resultats des Campagnes Scientifiques, par
Albert I., Prince de Monaco, vol. xl., xli., and xlv. Two modern
works giving recent history and economic developments are Spits-
bergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches, by R. N. Rudmose
Brown (1920), and Spitsbergen* Natur og Historic, by G. Holmsen
(1911). " Fra Ishavet " by G. Isachsen in Del Norske Geografiske
Selskabs Aarbok (1916-19) gives much information about Norwegian
hunters. The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen 1596-
1829, by F. C. Wieder (Amsterdam, 1919), has many reproductions
of early maps. The meteorological observations at Green Harbour
are published annually in Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen
Instituts (Christiania). Mil Zeppelin nach Spitzbergen, by A. Miethe
and H. Hergesell (Berlin 1911), is noteworthy for the excellence of its
illustrations, including colour plates. Some of the results of the
Norwegian surveys are collected in Expedition Isachsen au Spitsberg
1909-10. Resultats scientifiques (Christiania 1916). The geomorphol-
ogy of Spitsbergen is explained by G. de Geer, " On the physiographi-
cal evolution of Spitsbergen " in Geog.Annaler, I. (Stockholm 1919).
(R. N. R. B.)
SPORTS AND GAMES. The tendency towards "internation-
alism " in competitive sports and games had been rapidly grow-
ing in intensity, partly as a result of the establishment of the
Olympic Games, from 1896 onwards; but it was rudely inter-
rupted by the World War, and conditions were still unfavourable
up to 1921 for more than a limited renewal. The decade from
1911 to 1921 offers no proper material, therefore, for a consistent
history in this field, by way of supplement to the separate
articles in the earlier volumes of this Encyclopaedia; nor, indeed,
in the case of most sports and games, as carried on in 1910-21,
had there been more than minor changes, either in equipment,
methods or rules. So far as British and American interests,
however, are concerned, the chief statistics, as regards the main
events in the more important sports and games, are recorded
in the following sections.
564
SPORTS AND GAMES
Athletics, Track and Field. The Olympic Games were held at
Stockholm in July 1912, the highest number of points being scored
by the United States, and again at Antwerp in 1920, the 7th Olym-
piad being projected for Paris in 1924.
While the United States won the track and field events of the
1920 Olympic games in Antwerp by a considerable margin in the
point score, and set new records in the pole vault, the high jump,
and the 400- metre hurdles, the Americans totalled only 9 first places,
the same as the team of 24 men from Finland. The "stars" of the
American team were C. W. Paddock in the 100 metres, Allan Wood-
ring in the 200 metres, Frank Loomis in the 4OO-metre hurdles,
Richard Landon in the high jump, Frank Foss in the pole vault,
Pat Ryan in the hammer, Pat McDonald in the 56-lb. weight, and
H. H. Brown, the individual winner in the 3OOO-metre team race, the
only American to win a distance event. In swimming the Americans
were supreme, with Duke Kahanamoku and Kealoha, both of
Hawaii, Norman Ross, Ethelda Bleibtrey, Aileen Riggin and
Charlotte Boyle. The winners at the American eastern college
meetings were: 1911, Cornell; 1912, Pennsylvania; 1913, Pennsyl-
vania; .1914, Cornell; 1915, Cornell; 1916, Cornell; 1918, Cornell;
1919, Cornell; 1920, Pennsylvania; 1921, California. Princeton won
against Oxford (July 8 1920) at Queen's Club, London, by 6 events
to 4. At the Pennsylvania Relay Games (April 3o-May I 1920) the
Oxford-Cambridge 2-m. team, Tatham, Stallard, Milligan and
Rudd, set a new world's record of 7 min. 50 f sec.
Cricket. Before the war English cricket was in a flourishing
condition. The visit of a South African team to Australia in 1910-1,
in which the South Africans did hardly as well as had been expected,
served as a prelude to the so-called Triangular Tournament of 1912 ;
and in the meantime an English team under the management of the
Marylebone Cricket Club carried through a successful tour in
1911-2. Of 18 eleven-a-side matches the M.C.C. team lost only
the first test match; four were drawn, and 1 8, including four test
matches, were won by the Englishmen. At the end of 1910 a team
sent to South Africa by the M.C.C. won two and lost three test
matches. In 1912 the interest in county cricket was largely eclipsed
by the Triangular Tournament between England, Australia and
South Africa, in which nine test matches were played. England
proved victorious, winning four matches (three against South Africa
and one against Australia) and drawing twice with Australia, owing
to bad weather. The Australians beat the South Africans twice.
Of the 102 matches played up to 1920 between England and Aus-
tralia, England won 46 and Australia 35. Of those played in England
the home team won 17 and Australia 8, and 17 were drawn. In
those played in Australia England won 30 and Australia 27, three
being drawn. In 1921, however, in their visit to England, the
Australians won an easy victory.
A new method of deciding the English county championship was
inaugurated in 1911. With the idea of discouraging the players
from aiming at drawn matches, five points were given for a win, and
three points (with one point to the losing side) for a first-innings
victory. The championship was won by Warwickshire in 1911, by
Yorkshire in 1912 and by Kent in 1913. In 1914 the championship
was not decided owing to the outbreak of war, but the M.C.C.
Committee adjudged Surrey the winners. It was resumed in 1919,
when a new system was adopted, by which only wins counted, the
winners being the county with the highest proportion of wins to
matches played. Yorkshire was at the head of the list in 1919, and
Middlesex in 1920 and 1921.
The Oxford and Cambridge match was not played between 1915
and 1918. In 1911, 1914 and 1919 Oxford won, and in 1912, 1913
and 1921 Cambridge were the winners, the match in 1920 being
drawn. From 1911 to 1921, with the exception of the years 1915 to
1918, when the match was not played, Eton won against Harrow.
English Football. (i) Rugby. In 1911 a French team for the first
time was victorious in an international match, beating Scotland in
Paris. In the same season Wales beat England, Ireland, Scotland
and France; Ireland beat England, Scotland and France; England at
Twickenham beat Scotland and France. In 1912 all the interna-
tional matches that took place in the United Kingdom were won by
the fifteen playing in its own country. England defeated Wales and
Ireland, but narrowly lost to Scotland. Ireland beat Scotland and
Wales, and Wales beat Scotland. In no match was France vic-
torious. A strong South African team began a tour in Great Britain
in the autumn of 1912. After gaining several decisive victories over
counties, the South Africans lost to Newport, were with great
difficulty victorious over Llanelly, the United Services and London,
beat Oxford and Cambridge Universities, were narrowly beaten at
Twickenham by another London fifteen, and easily beat Scotland at
Edinburgh. They next gained their most decisive victory at Dublin,
securing 36 points against Ireland, and beat Wales by a try at
Cardiff, but lost to Swansea by the same margin. In the inter-
national matches in 1913 England defeated Scotland, Wales, Ireland
and France; Wales beat Scotland, Ireland and France; Scotland
beat Ireland and France; and Ireland beat France. In 1914 England
beat Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France; Wales beat Scotland,
Ireland and France; and Ireland beat Scotland and France. From
1915 to 1919 the matches were not played. In 1920 England beat