tary measures in Finland seemed to point to something more
than a desire on the part of the Russian Government to prevent
a German invasion of Southern Finland in the event of a Russo-
German war. Right up to the north of the Gulf of Bothnia a
network of railways was being spread out for military purposes,
and new strategic lines were constructed of a kind necessitated
neither for purposes of defence against Germany nor for purposes
of trade. Barracks sprang up at the railway junctions. In
Sweden Russian spies were ubiquitous, and a Russian military
attache had to be recalled on the ground of having pushed
inquisitiveness beyond all limits. A handbook was produced for
the use of the Russian military service containing information
about the conditions of life in Sweden, and with Swedish maps in
it, as well as a short vocabulary of military terms in Russian and
Swedish. Swedes had an uncomfortable feeling that the attention
of Russia was being directed altogether too closely upon their
inadequately defended country.

A careful enquiry into the question of national defence had
been undertaken in 1907. The Liberal members of the com-
mittee of investigation which was appointed were dissatisfied
with its estimate of the defence expenditure required, and
signified their attitude by withdrawing from it in 1910. This
militated somewhat against the efforts of the committee, and it
proved to be impossible, as had been intended, to submit a new
scheme of national defences to the Riksdag of 1911. Instead of
this, the Government brought forward a proposal for a new
naval programme, and, in the face of opposition from the Liberals
and Social Democrats, carried a bill, as a first step, for the
construction of a powerful new battle cruiser.

Liberals in Office. In Sept. 1911 the general election for the
Second Chamber of the Riksdag, under the reformed methods
which had almost doubled the electorate, resulted in increasing



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the strength of the parties of the Left. The Liberals elected
numbered 101, the members of the Right numbering 65 and the
Social Democrats 64. Admiral Lindman's Ministry resigned, and
in Oct. the King entrusted Karl Staaff, who had been prime
minister in 1905-6, with the task of forming a new Government.
This Ministry remained in office until Feb. 1914. Count Albert
Ehrensvard, previously Swedish minister at Washington, became
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and both of the departments of
national defence were placed under civilians, in accordance
with the Liberal view that there should be greater civil control.
Alfred Petersson, who had gone over to the Liberals, became once
more Minister of Agriculture. The question of national defence
again came up for treatment, but upon different lines and almost
exclusively at the hands of the members of the Left. It had not
been possible to proceed further with the projected new ironclad
than the making out of the designs. The Government proposed
to the Riksdag of 1912 that the project should be abandoned
and the Riksdag agreed. This cancelling of a previous decision
of the Riksdag, on account of the new elections having altered
the composition of the Second Chamber, evoked strong dissatisfac-
tion. Within a brief space of time a sum of 17,000,000 kr. was
raised by voluntary subscription for the building of the ship, and
since the Government was unable to decline to use this fund the
keel was laid down on Dec. i. The whole country was now
stirred up, and further sums were subscribed in the same way to
furnish machine-guns for the Landsturm and to provide aircraft.
Towards the end of 1913 things had come to such a point that the
prime minister was able in the course of a speech to advance
arguments in favour of a forthcoming proposal for a winter
training for the army, the establishment of reserve forces, the
levying of a higher war-tax on the more well-to-do, the ameliora-
tion of the laws governing war, etc. But in view of the election
promises to which the Liberal leaders had committed themselves
during the contest of 1911 this programme was not to be submitted
all at once; its most important item alone, that of the training of
the infantry, would in the first place be submitted by itself on the
occasion of the Second Chamber elections of 1914 before being
proposed to the Riksdag. The public discussion of the matter
became very lively, and although no thoroughgoing defence
programme was in fact submitted to the Riksdag of 1914,
violent feelings were aroused and expressed.

At last even the small farmers and peasantry, usually anything
but enthusiasts for defence measures owing to the heavy personal
taxation entailed, were drawn into the movement. On Feb. 6
1914 there was a great meeting in Stockholm of more than 30,000
representatives of this class from all parts of the country, assem-
bled for the purpose of bringing home to King Gustav their
anxiety at not seeing the question handled promptly and in its
entirety. They were received by the King in the great courtyard
of the Royal Palace, and their spokesman declared that the
Swedish people were willing to bear the burden of whatever
measures of defence were necessitated by the gravity of the time.
The King answered that he, too, was of opinion that the
problem called for treatment in its entirety and without delay.

This demonstration had important consequences at once.
The Ministry had had no previous intimation of what the King
was going to say, and matters were brought to a head by the
resignation of Staaff and his colleagues. On Feb. 17 a new
Ministry was formed, with Hjalmar Hammarskjiold as its head.

Policy of Reform. In connexion with foreign affairs during
this period it may be added that, by arbitration at The Hague,
the sea boundary between Sweden and Norway was fixed in
accordance with Sweden's claim, and Sweden became a party to
the North Sea and Baltic Agreement of 1908. By dint of close
cooperation between the Government and the Riksdag a large
number of important reforms were instituted. Among those
carried through during Adml. Lindman's administration may be
mentioned (in addition to the franchise measures above noted)
the creation of a supreme administrative Court of Justice
(Regerings ratten), together with a legal council, formed of some
members of the Supreme Court, as advisers to the Government
in legislative matters. Civil marriages were made permissible



for all members of the State church. New laws were introduced
as to farmers' tenancies and the leasing and letting of houses,
flats, etc., and the speculative operations of the big companies
dealing in land in Norrland were restricted and placed under
control. A new company law was passed by the Riksdag and also
a new banking law. A progressive income and property tax,
based on the taxpayer's own statements as to both, was also
introduced, together with a progressive inheritance tax. Custom-
house duties were remodelled and the sugar-tax modified. An
arrangement was come to with the Grangesberg Co. in regard to
its iron-ore business in Lapland, by which the complicated
question of proprietorial rights was so settled that the State
joined in as part owner, receiving preference shares to the value
of 40,000,000 kr., a specified royalty on the proceeds of the mining
at Gellivara and Kirunavara and the right of redemption after
a specified period. Large grants were made to the electric power
stations at Trollhattan and Alvkarleby in central Sweden, as well
as to that at Porjus in an uninhabited region of Lapland, and a
widening of the Trollhatte canal was put in hand. A new law
regarding insurance against illness was passed. Night work
in certain occupations was forbidden for women. Improvements
were made in higher technical education. In 1909 a sharp
conflict arose between employers and workmen, and the latter
organized a general strike in which nearly 300,000 took part.
There were, however, no disturbances, thanks both to the disci-
pline maintained and to the wise measures adopted by the
Government. Social life was not brought to a standstill, as
the workmen expected, and after a lapse of two months the
conflict was brought to an end.

While the reforms introduced by Adml. Lindman's Ministry
lay mainly in the sphere of economics and industry, the Staaff
Ministry devoted its energies more especially towards social
questions. A new social department was instituted, as a centre
for the State's activities in this direction. The law bearing on the
protection of workmen was extended, and various forms of
workmen's unions were placed under control. A law was passed
regulating the methods of dealing with alcoholists. The profits
of the sale of spirits by the communes were allocated to the State,
compensation being allowed therefor, the object of this being
to free the communes from all economic interest in the liquor
trade. After long preliminary planning, an illness and old-age
pensions insurance law was passed, enacting obligatory insurance,
with payments in three degrees, for all, except pensioners of the
State, between the ages of 16 and 66, the pensions to be given
in case of illness, or on the completion of the 67th year.

The War Years, 1914-8. In the ministry which Herr Ham-
marskjiold formed in Feb. 1914 Herr K. A. Wallenberg, the
banker, was Minister of Foreign Affairs; Herr Dan Brostrom,
shipowner, Minister for Naval Defence, and Herr Oscar von
Sydow was Minister of the Interior. The Second Chamber was
dissolved, and after a very sharp contest the advocates of active
defence measures were returned in increased numbers, but with-
out having secured a majority, polling 86 seats out of 230, while
the Liberals numbered 71 and the Social Democrats 73.

The Riksdag met again in May, and the outbreak of the war
brought with it a solution of difficulties, inasmuch as all parties
recognized that there must be no disputing as to details of
defence at a moment when the whole surrounding world was
aflame. Universal military service had already been introduced,
but now the training time for infantry was increased to 340 days,
of which 250 were to be spent in recruit classes beginning in the
autumn and continuing throughout the winter, followed by the
usual training courses during three years. In order to secure non-
commissioned officers of the right kind it was judged well to
impose a longer training time, extending to 485 days, on students
and other young men of similar standing, while for cavalry and
artillery the period was fixed at 365 days. Large sums were
allotted for the provision of war materials and for the strengthen-
ing of the coast defences. A programme was drawn up for adding
new vessels to the fleet. Simultaneously with these steps towards
increasing the defences of the country, measures were introduced
for modernizing the existing code of punishments for military



SWEDEN



633



offences, this being accompanied by the creation of a special
official, to be appointed by the Riksdag, whose duty it would be to
inquire into all allegations regarding abuse of power or other
derelictions on the part of superior officers in the army or navy
an appointment designed to act as a protection for soldiers and
sailors against injustice.

An official declaration of neutrality was published without
delay, and all the ministries holding office during the war, with
the Riksdag's expressed approval, aimed at remaining absolutely
neutral. Neutrality involved the duty of preventing any of the
belligerent Powers from using Swedish territory as a basis for
operations against enemies. Throughout the entire war the
Swedish fleet remained on guard along the coasts of the country
and on several occasions it had to take active measures. During
the summer of 1916 there were many violations of neutrality
in Swedish waters. In order to elude the observation of foreign
battleships, trading vessels, flying the flags of belligerent countries,
or carrying dangerous freights, sought to get through a channel
called Kogrundsrannan within Swedish waters in Oresund, and
apparently frequent attempts were to be expected on the side
of belligerent countries at both ends of this channel to seize
enemy vessels even at the risk of this occurring within Swedish
waters. This channel was closed therefore against all but cer-
tain known Swedish vessels. The Allied Powers considered this
action incorrect and protested, but the channel remained closed
until Dec. 1918. A number of trading vessels belonging to the
Allied Powers, which, owing to the closing of the channel, were
confined in th; Baltic, were, however, allowed egress on the con-
dition that the Swedish population received a certain measure
of necessary supplies from the west.

The stagnation produced by the outbreak of the war as
regards foreign trade and shipping did not last long. Sweden
became for a time, like Holland and Italy, an intermediary
in the American trade with Germany, quite in accordance with
international law as it stood before the war. When, however, the
Allies proceeded to employ more and more stringently their
weapon of blockade against the Central Powers this business as
intermediary came quickly to a stop. The intensifying of the war
at sea brought with it great obstacles in the way of neutral
commerce. Its most painful feature was the sinking of neutral
vessels by the German submarines, with its accompanying loss
of lives. The mines which were spread about by other groups of
belligerents also claimed many victims. The proceedings of the
submarines called forth much indignation, and protests were
made, but without much effect. The measures of the Allies
were of a different order, but their control over shipping presently
became so oppressive that protests against this aho were made,
the weightiest protest coming from the three northern kingdoms
acting together. Sweden's geographical position and the com-
mercial conditions which existed before the war necessitated the
maintaining of relations with both sides. Trade transactions
with Germany were in 1913 somewhat in excess of those with
Great Britain, but Great Britain was the larger purchaser of
Swedish products. During the war one great displacement in
trade resulted from the diminution of Sweden's imports of coal
from Great Britain and the consequent necessity of making
good this diminution by imports from Germany.

Despite all the difficulties to be encountered it proved possible
to maintain importation into Sweden from the west of raw
materials, grain and other necessaries down to well on in 1916,
but from this time onwards there was an increasing scarcity.
When the Allies intensified their blockade, and Sweden could not
break off trade relations with Germany, the blockade-line was
drawn not between Sweden and the Central Powers but west of
Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries. All goods which
had to pass the blockade-line in the North Sea on the way to or
from Sweden were subjected to sharp control. As regards goods
from Sweden certificates of origin and ownership had to be fur-
nished, to make sure that they were not in reality disguised
exports from Germany, while in the case of goods for Sweden
guarantees were required to the effect that they would not be
forwarded to Germany. Suspected goods were unloaded in




British seaports. Black lists caused serious losses to conscien-
tious tradesmen as well as to others. Both groups of belligerents
set on foot elaborate systems of trade espionage in neutral coun-
tries. In order to regulate the undertakings which the belliger-
ents demanded from merchants, manufacturers and shipowners,
the so-called War Trade Law was passed in 1916 to give legal
value to officially recognized undertakings to foreign Powers,
while at the same time it was laid down that undertakings not
thus recognized lacked all legal value. A special trades commis-
sion was created to investigate all questions connected with this
matter. The international goods exchange came to be worked
like an enormous system of compensation, controlled by State
officials by means of agreement. Every neutral country had to
offer some equivalent in return for its imports. During the first
years of the war it was to the interest of the Allied Powers that
goods should go through Sweden to Russia. The great consign-
ments caused inconvenience to the Swedish railways, but they
made things easier for Sweden in the matter of imports.

Negotiations were set on foot for a commercial agreement be-
tween Sweden and Great Britain and her Allies, but they led to
no result during the time of Herr Hammarskjiold's Ministry, and
this fact was turned to account against him in the political con-
flict which went on over the internal affairs of the country. After
this Ministry resigned on Mar. i 1917, and Herr Carl Swartz
formed a new Government, the Foreign Minister, Adml. Lind-
man, brought about a temporary agreement by which the Swedish
people were allowed the right to import nearly 92,000 tons of
grain and about 40,000 tons of other goods, on the condition that
certain vessels belonging to the Allies then confined in the Baltic
should be allowed egress through the cloned channel of Kogrund.

After Herr Eden's Ministry succeeded to that of Herr Swartz
in the autumn new discussions were entered upon in regard to
imports. In Feb. 1918 a so-called modus vivendi agreement was
come to, enabling Sweden to import about 75,000 tons of maize,
feeding-stuffs, raw phosphate, mineral oils and coffee, and in
June a more comprehensive agreement was reached, in accord-
ance with which it was possible to import larger quantities of
grain, feeding-stuffs coal, oils, india-rubber, cotton, wool, hides,
etc. In this connexion Sweden placed at the disposal of the
Allies a portion of her commercial fleet. In addition, Sweden
guaranteed to the Allies a certain share in her iron-ore exports,
and also undertook to allow a certain amount of credit for goods
bought in Sweden. In this way Sweden's most essential import
was made sure of until the end of the war. In consequence of the
universal scarcity the three Scandinavian countries came to an
agreement as to the mutual exchange of commodities.

The hard conditions which prevailed during the war brought
Sweden and Norway closer together again. After the severance
between Sweden and Norway in 1905, and the election of a
Danish prince as King of Norway, the relations between the
Scandinavian countries had been somewhat cold. King Gustav,
who at one time had been the "Norwegian Crown Prince, himself
took the initiative, and in Dec. 1914 invited the Norwegian and
Danish monarchs to a meeting at Malmo, at which the affairs
of the three countries as affected by the war came under dis-
cussion. Other such consultations followed, for instance at
Christiania in Nov. 1917, and the prime ministers and foreign
ministers of the three kingdoms also came together, while on
some occasions of importance there were meetings at which
special delegates were present.

In Jan. 1918 Sweden gave her recognition to the new Finnish
State. When, shortly afterwards, the Red outbreak occurred in
Finland, there was a strong movement in favour of Sweden's
joining in on the side of the newly formed Finnish Government,
but when the Russian troops began to take part in the struggle
on the side of the Reds, Russia continuing to be a belligerent
Power, the Government and the Riksdag agreed that it would
not be wise to intervene. Swedish volunteers fought on the side
of the Whites, and a couple of Swedish ambulances were sent
over. Swedish refugees were brought back from Southern Fin-
land. While the civil war in Finland was still in progress a peti-
tion came from the inhabitants of the Aland Is. for Swedish



634



SWEDEN



protection against aggression on the part of Russian troops which
were stationed there. Troops were sent from Sweden to main-
tain order on the islands, and they achieved their purpose. When
Germany, however, came to the support of the Whites and landed
forces on the Aland Is., the Swedish troops were withdrawn.

Economic Measures. At the very beginning of the war period
the Swedish Government carried through several special adminis-
trative measures. The exportation of a number of commodities
of great importance was prohibited, partly in order that they
might be kept for home consumption, partly in order that they
might control the exportation by export licences. This system
was gradually developed until at last the export of all important
goods was prohibited. An Industrial Commission and an Unem-
ployment Commission were set up to decide on the measures
which should be taken to maintain industrial work and to miti-
gate the serious condition of unemployment which threatened.
A Food Commission was appointed to study the development of
the market, and a National War Insurance Commission was
charged with the task of dealing with insurances against loss of
life and property through the war on the seas, as the private in-
surance companies were unable to undertake all the risks. The
Riksdag's legislative powers were also called into play. A finan-
cial Moratorium was instituted at an early date. The Riksbank's
obligation to meet its own notes with gold was suspended,
and new laws were introduced giving the Government new pow-
ers, which were employed when necessary, to effect the compul-
sory purchase of goods from individuals and to fix maximum
prices on commodities. Swedish vessels could not be sold to
other countries without the Government's sanction, nor could
they carry freight from one foreign country to another. All this
accumulation of legal measures, which presently had added to it
the law against unreasonable increases in rent, the law against
" profiteering " and several others, did not come about at once
but grew out of the needs which were created by the conditions
of the war period. New organs for war-time administration were
formed in the Trade Commission (June 1915) and the Food
Control Commission (autumn 1916), the former of which had to
apply the War Trade Laws and to supervise exports and imports,
while the latter, as the successor of an earlier Food Commission,
took in hand the food rationing of the country.

Rationing. Before the war Sweden produced about four-
sevenths of the cereals which she required; the rest had to be
imported. On the other hand, she exported live cattle, pork and
butter, the production of which was made possible by the impor-
tation of feeding-stuffs. The fodder harvest of 1914 was so
scanty that it necessitated a reduction of live stock. The impor-
tation of cereals was undertaken by the State through the agency
of the Food Commission. When there began to be a scarcity in
some of the animal foods, and prices suddenly rose, recourse was
had to the fixing of maximum prices for the first time in Nov.
1915. In the course of the year also the exportation of animal
foods was restricted and producers were obliged, in return for the
granting of export licences, to allot a certain proportion of their
goods (" compensation goods " so-called) to the State for sale by
the communal authorities at low prices to those who were less
well-to-do. In the autumn of 1916 the scarcity of animal foods
became so serious that rationing had to be decided on, and, even
so, anxiety was occasionally felt lest the supplies should fail. The
situation was aggravated later by the bad harvest of 1917. In
Oct. 1916 it was decided that nobody should obtain sugar with-
out presenting a sugar-card. These sugar-cards gave a person the
right to purchase 13 kgm. of sugar a year, with an additional
amount for preserving purposes to each family. In Jan. 1917
bread-cards were introduced. Farmers were allowed to retain a
certain quantity of corn but had to sell all the surplus to the
State. All such stores, whether bought by the State or imported,
were rationed out to the rest of the population, who were given
bread-cards providing at first allowances of 250 grammes a day
to each person, later only 200 grammes, but again 250 in Nov.
1918. Persons engaged in particularly arduous work were al-
lowed extra rations. The bread-cards were used also on jour-
neys. The carrying out of this work of rationing needed very



thorough supervision, and this evoked dissatisfaction and annoy-
ance, especially among the farmers. The system was changed
in the food control year of 1918-9, each fanner being called
upon to supply a certain specified quantity of corn and being
allowed to do more or less as he pleased with what he had left.
Rationing ceased at the end of Aug. 1919.