kept the whole of Switzerland in a state of feverish anxiety, and
when the loaded dice fell, very many persons in Switzerland
were seized with panic. A wild assault was made on all provision
establishments which supplied the necessaries of life, and these
were bought in mad fashion and in quantities far above what was
required. In many families stores of eatables were still found
after the lapse of two years, and that quite apart from what had
been spoilt. The banks and other establishments of a like kind
had to withstand a regular siege, for everyone desired to get his
property back. This haste had finally to be restrained by orders
issued by the Government. As if by enchantment coins of small
denominations disappeared from circulation. Not even at the
post-offices was it possible to change Swiss banknotes for large
sums. It was especially hard on the foreign tourists who were
surprised by this sudden war. No one was any longer willing to
change their foreign banknotes and cheques, formerly cashed
so eagerly. Only the hotel keepers found themselves forced to
receive cheques in payment for their accounts, and that despite
the danger of incurring great losses by this act of friendship.

On the Swiss frontiers the blocking of all communications
took strange forms. A typical case was that of Basle, close to the
northern frontier. The tourists rushed in by thousands, and the
railway trains were enormously delayed. With the keenest anxiety
everyone sought for a carriage, a motor car, or some kind of cart
so as to reach the frontier as easily and as quickly as possible.
Many, whose cash had disappeared in consequence of the difficul-
ties caused by the exchange, had to set out on foot, burdened
with their luggage, to cover the great distance. These carts
themselves were heavily laden with luggage, trunks and band
boxes, while high up on these artificial mountains were perched
travellers of every land, who to-day shared their common hard
fate peaceably, but on the morrow were to oppose each other as
enemies. Here was a German professor clothed in homespun,
there an Englishman in tweeds, near by were some merry Belgian
ladies with huge hats and elegant parasols, and, on top of all,
countless schoolboys with caps of diverse colours. So was it all
day long in the town. All this wild confusion was caused by the
sudden interruption of international communications and the
closing of the frontiers.

Thousands also were deprived at one fell stroke of their daily
bread. Such were chiefly Italians, who desired to regain Italy
over the St. Gotthard or the Simplon, often with only a little
cash, sometimes quite penniless, and who were blockaded in
Basle, and in incredible numbers, finally some 40,000 of them.
All these unfortunates had to be cared for till it was possible for
them to resume their journey. Quarters were found in private
villas and other dwelling houses for the sick women and children.
The Cooperative Society of Basle sent great carts filled with



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bread and milk, private benevolence made gifts of tea and other
eatables. School houses and gymnasiums gave shelter to these
unhappy, homeless Italians as far as quarters could be found
anywhere, but a great number had to camp out in the open. Only
when the great rush had somewhat abated was it possible to
facilitate their return to their own country.

Side by side with these arrangements military preparations
were carried out in Switzerland. On July 31 1914 the entire
Swiss army was warned to be ready, and as early as Aug. i the
order to mobilize was given. The first day for this was Aug. 3,
and two days later the mobilization was quite complete. The
troops were ordered to the frontiers which till now had been
guarded in part by the second reserve (Landsturm), called out
first of all. At the same time (Aug. 3) the Swiss Parliament gave
the Swiss executive unlimited powers, even in financial matters.
Col. Ulrich Wille was named as commander-in-chief, and
Col. Sprecher von Bernegg as chief of the general staff.
As it was hoped that the war would not last very long,
the mobilized troops went off joyfully to the frontiers. The
belligerent States solemnly assured Switzerland of their inten-
tion of observing its neutrality, a declaration which brought
about a certain amount of relief. When finally the principal
operations of war were seen to be taking place far from the
Swiss frontiers, the Swiss people were able to think of recalling
the troops, in order to simplify matters, from the service on the
frontiers, though some were later summoned to relieve those
actually serving there. But if in Switzerland a sigh of relief
arose, the sad fate of Belgium was felt to be a stern warning, and
greatly embarrassed the Swiss authorities, military and political,
and it was felt to be quite impossible to strip the frontiers of all
watching troops. The fact of this monotonous service, and the
conviction that the war might possibly last a long time, brought
about a certain disinclination for further service of this kind.
Besides, such protection of the frontiers threatened to become
costly to an appreciable degree. Therefore much criticism was
exercised, chiefly by the Socialists, who especially blamed what,
from their point of view, were the mainly needless fortifications
around Moral, which were regarded as simply a piece of military
display and lavishness, and were considered as a partial measure
directed against one only of the belligerents. Thus the Swiss
authorities had to order certain alleviations and simplifications
in this frontier service. In order to satisfy the agricultural in-
terest the peasant soldiers were called out at a period which
caused least disturbance in the cultivation of the land, etc.

Among the military war measures must be counted the aboli-
tion, from the beginning, of telephonic communications between
the different Swiss towns. This caused all the greater rush to the
telegraph offices, and yet even these were under the censor, at
least so far as regarded foreign countries.

The equipment of the Swiss army in new, field grey, uniforms
was carried out in 1915-6. The expense of these new uniforms
amounted to about 800,000.

Most unpleasant for Switzerland was the " Affair of the Two
Colonels" (Jan. 15 1516), Egli and von Wattenwyl. This pair
of Swiss officers were in regular communication with the German
and the Austrian military attaches, ostensibly only for supplying
such information as affected no Swiss military matters. All the
same this " affair" caused great amazement, especially in French-
speaking Switzerland, and in the breasts of the Socialists, who
saw in this action of two officers of the Swiss general staff an
unneutral and unfriendly act as regards the Entente. They were
court-martialed, but were acquitted of the charge of infringe-
ment of their official duties, and were handed over to the Swiss
executive for " disciplinary punishment " because of their con-
duct against Swiss neutrality. By this they were each sentenced
to 20 days' strict arrest, and to suspension as leading officials in
the Swiss general staff. Col. Egli demanded his dismissal at once.
The Socialists and a delegation of the Government of canton
Vaud required the summoning of the Swiss Parliament in order
to discuss the " Affair of the Two Colonels."

About the same time the war control of the Swiss railways was
abolished, while a census of Swiss who were not liable to do



military service and of arms in private hands was decreed. A
later appeal for well-qualified sharpshooters among Swiss citi-
zens resulted in the volunteering of about 100,000 men, of whom,
however, only a small percentage was accepted as being really fit
for such military service.

Much bad blood was caused in the Socialist camp, and also
among other citizens, by the Swiss Government's decision that
punishments for certain purely military offences were to be
purged in the penal establishments of Witzwil and of Orbe, while
in the case of the officers confinement in the fortresses of St.
Maurice and St. Gotthard alone was directed. Complaint was
also made of the alleged rigorous treatment of ordinary soldiers,
and of the far lighter treatment of officers charged with offences.

All this occasioned the promotion of an " Initiative " for the
total abolition of courts of military justice. Enough signatures
were obtained for this " Initiative," but it was later defeated on
a popular vote.

It is easy to understand that Switzerland was the special
rendezvous of foreign spies, especially the frontier towns and
even the capital, Berne. In this respect all the belligerents did
their very best. So even the former director of the Bernese
tourist bureau, for taking part in an intelligence service in favour
of a foreign Power, was condemned to five months' imprisonment j
and a fine of 8.

As early as Nov. 1916, the Swiss executive resolved to recruit
250 volunteers out of the army to serve as army police, and this
for the entire duration of the war mobilization.

Certain troops, especially those from industrial regions, had to j
be pacified by the Swiss Parliament by increased pay. This '
scheme did not find support as late as the end of the year 1916,
but was adopted in April 1918, and then it was not merely the I
pay which was increased, but also the amount of food rations
carried in the knapsacks, and emergency support in case of need i
(this in the case of soldiers' families).

The fact, too, must not be overlooked that in cases of discon-
tent with the military service many unfortunate events contrib-
uted to this dissatisfaction. One example was the accelerated
mobilization of the 3rd Division (May 1917), and the following
endurance marches in great heat, in consequence of which many
soldiers were made ill, and fell exhausted on the roads. This
brought about an exceedingly vehement movement against all
military service, and was utilized to the utmost by the workmen.

In June 1917 the Swiss Government had raised the amounts of
the emergency family grants in the big towns to about as. a head
per day for grown-up persons, and to 8d. for children, while in the
smaller towns the respective amounts were is. 6d. and 6d. In the
same year the length of the relief services was fixed at 2| months
for the younger and active men (Auszug), and at six weeks for
the older men of the first reserve or " Landwehr."

Considerable discontent prevailed in French-speaking Switzer-
land with the chiefs of the Swiss army, who seemed to it too
" Germanophile." This went so far that, in course of the discussion
by the Swiss Parliament of a report on Swiss neutrality (Aug.
1917), a formal vote of want of confidence was proposed, and the
compulsory retirement of the general and of the chief-of-staff de-
manded. All such proposals, however, were rejected, but they
threw a lurid light on the disagreement between French-Swiss
and German-Swiss. In the Assembly, however, the assertion of
the supremacy of the civil power over the military power was
approved, as was also greater economy in the matter of con-
structing fortifications, etc.

In consequence of the prolongation of the war, and the fre-
quent calling up as reliefs of soldiers without much means, great
distress was inflicted on them and on their families, and many
could not find work on being released from active service, as their
situations had been filled by Swiss citizens exempt from military
service and sometimes even by women. In order to alleviate this
crying distress a department for the promotion of the welfare of
the soldiers was founded by the Swiss executive which gave this
department a first contribution of some 18,000 (Aug. 2 IQI?)-
Later on came the " National Collection " (a voluntary contribu-
tion made throughout Switzerland), which brought in millions



SWITZERLAND



641



of francs. To stimulate this collection specially large medals of
copper, silver, and gold were struck, and also brooches made, all
being sold to the people. The term and the institution " For the
welfare of the Soldiers " must be understood to include also other
benevolent institutes for the soldiers on active service, such as
" Soldiers' Homes," some of which were splendid soldiers' insti-
tutes where refreshments were to be had cheaply, and which
afforded opportunities for reading and for writing letters. We
must not pass over the arrangements made for the washing
of the soldiers' garments. Not merely was the soldiers' body-
linen washed, but their clothes repaired, and in part replaced.
It would be most unjust to pass over the very prolonged occu-
pation of the Swiss frontiers if we did not mention the exertions
of the Swiss Red Cross Society. The Swiss Red Cross is managed
usually by a board of directors. But at the very beginning of the
mobilization (Aug. 2 1914) the Red Cross men were also called up,
and a medical man placed at their head as chief. At that moment
the Red Cross had at its disposal not quite 6,000. Hence it was
resolved to organize a national collection, not merely for actual
money, but also for gifts in kind (especially linen and woollen
garments), and this idea was eagerly taken up. The money col-
lected amounted to about 84,000, while the gifts in kind flowed
in abundantly. As to the latter the Swiss women displayed great
zeal. From all sides poured in shirts, socks, and other things, in
huge quantities, including bed-linen and objects for use in hospi-
tals. We must note the quaint fact that, over and above what is
commonly used by soldiers on active service, many odd gifts
were received, such as chemises for women, articles for female
toilettes, and even children's toys.

If detailed figures were to be given for the useful objects collected
from Aug. 1914 to June 1918 by the Swiss Red Cross Society, such
as body-linen, shirts, sheets for beds, etc., the number would run
up to several hundred thousands. The shirts, and the like, were
specially welconed by the poorer soldiers, who otherwise would
have fallen victims to various diseases arising from the lack of such
things, or in winter-time would have been frozen. For many, military
service was thus rendered far more endurable.

One of the chief tasks which fell to the Swiss Red Cross was the
creation of the so-called " v Red Cross Squads." These were com-
posed of men, exempt from military service, who placed themselves
voluntarily at the disposition of the Red Cross, and were provided
by it with uniforms and all things necessary for a regular " health
service." The Red Cross Society itself has a great number of car-
riages at its disposal, and also sometimes commandeered motor-cars,
and prepared the.n for the transport of the wounded. The troops
on active service, like the Medical Corps, also used such vehicles in
great numbers.

A further task of the Swiss Red Cross consisted in the training of
: well-qualified Red Cross women nurses (Red Cross sisters). Besides
these there were other training establishments, either religious or
lay (the latter are the mother houses which train nurses). At the
very beginning of the war the Red Cross reckoned on the services
of 960 sisters who could be employed in the care of sick soldiers.
Many of these were e nployed in the huts for the wounded, set up at
fixed distances behind the front, and in the military hospitals.

The Swiss army was severely tried by the influenza epidemic in
the summer of 1918 and in the following winter, and that too
during the general strike (see below). If the Swiss Red Cross had
' had many claims upon it previously, it was now scarcely able to
1 meet the tremendous demands made upon it, first, by the army
leaders, and later on (at first the plague was contemptuously termed
" the Spanish grippe ") when the epidemic spread to a totally unex-
pected extent among the non-military population, and the unceasing
cries for help from this side resounded louder and louder. As the
1 epidemic spread more and more widely, voluntary help had to be
enlisted. Here stepped in the so-called "Samaritan Associations"
(St. John's Ambulance), already closely connected with the Red
Cross, and encouraged their members, with a certain amount of
training obtained in voluntary sick-nursing courses, to place them-
selves at the disposition of the afflicted families. The chief work,
however, fell upon the Red Cross and its professional trained
nurses, and it is amazing how much the Red Cross achieved in this
department. About 10% of the professional nurses (sisters) died
of their exertions.

In another respect too the Red Cross rendered excellent service.
As is well known, the American Red Cross Society gave some
20,000 to the Swiss military nursing department. This sum was
employed in creating convalescent homes for the Swiss soldiers who
had suffered from influenza. The Swiss executive put this task also
in the hands of the Swiss Red Cross, which, however, later on had to
! make considerable additions to this amount of money.

In consequence of the spread of the influenza epidemic it became
necessary either to suspend or to delay the holding of the training
xxxn. 21



courses for recruits, the subsequent drill courses, and the education
of the non-commissioned officers. The percentage of invalid soldiers
was unexpectedly high, and as the epidemic was so rapid as to seem
like an explosion, it could be combated only with very insufficient
means. Hence very caustic criticisms were expressed without
reserve. These demanded publicly the dismissal of the chief of the
medical department of the Swiss army, who was said to be already
overweighted with the care of the " interned " foreign soldiers,
and so could pay too little attention to his own Swiss soldiers, and
had ordered precautionary measures at too late a period. All kinds
of military hospitals, if one can credit the accounts in newspapers of
all shades of opinion, presented a very sorry appearance. The care
of the foreign interned soldiers was taken away from this Swiss
chief medical officer, and also, after an enquiry, he was acquitted
of want of attention to his own Swiss soldiers.

After the Armistice (Nov. 1918) the Swiss army could gradually
be almost wholly demobilized. The defence of the frontiers was
entrusted to volunteer troops whose pay was fixed at from 8 to 10
francs (6 to 8 shillings) a day. This afforded a decent income at
least to many who no longer earned anything, whether because of
the direct effects of the war or of the prolonged military service in
their own land. It was asserted that in consequence of the prolonged
mobilization the Swiss soldiers had gained immensely in military
efficiency. But it was a pity that such efficiency cost the little land
of Switzerland between 40 to 50 million pounds, and this expense had
to be met by raising the customs duties, taxes on excess profits, two
sets of special " war taxes," etc., which, it was hoped, would bring
in the necessary funds, if only after a lapse of many years.

Once again considerable bodies of troops had to be called up
because of the general strike (Nov. 1918), which failed in a few days.
And these extra troops were required also by reason of the break-up
of the German and, especially, the Austrian armies, which flowed
back like a flood, and threatened a regular invasion of Switzerland.

In Nov. 1918 Gen. Wille resigned his post, as he considered that
his work was at an end. In the same month the military pensions
were increased 10% and the export of arms and ammunition for-
bidden, while the bureau of the Swiss general staff was also dissolved.

To meet the emergency support of the families of poor soldiers
during the four years of the mobilization period nearly 2,000,000
were expended. Both for the mobilized soldiers and for the volun-
teers the daily pay was raised to about 73. Before the war ordinary
soldiers received only 8d. a day. The old arrangements were put
into force again in March 1920.

The defence of the northern frontier had to be strengthened again
at the time of the signature of the Peace of Versailles (June 1919),
for a huge immigration from Germany was feared. Later, the fron-
tier police had also to be strengthened because of the great amount
of smuggling and the enormous number of people who crossed the
frontier because of the bad conditions of life in central Europe and
the lack of employment, for Switzerland, as the sole non-enemy land
open, was regarded as an El Dorado. On Aug. 28 1920 the watch on
the frontiers was definitely abolished. The strict watch on the
frontiers had greatly impeded all facilities for travelling, and the very
severe regulations as to the visa of passports and payment of other
dues were subsequently greatly lightened.

Economic E/ects of the War. After the first excitement had
died down, there were, in the first months of the first year of the
war, no notable advances in the prices of various articles in
Switzerland. This took place gradually, as the difficulties of
importing articles increased. As early as Nov. 1914, Italy
announced that she would place no hindrances in the way of the
export of articles of food and supplies of raw materials.

In the matter of corn Switzerland was not in a very favourable
position at the beginning of the war, for the supplies existing
there would have barely sufficed for a couple of months. One
must not forget that the Swiss agriculturists devote their atten-
tion far more to milk and cheese than to corn. This latter, there-
fore, could be delivered more cheaply by foreign countries, and
was a far less profitable occupation for the Swiss farmer than
milk and its products. Hence Switzerland fell more and more
into a state of dependence on foreign countries.

The Swiss authorities naturally first of all attacked this press-
ing problem, and tried to find a remedy. They acted very shrewd-
ly in that they introduced, Jan. 9 1915, a provisional monopoly
of corn, and issued a special decree relating to its export. Thus
the country was to a certain degree provided with the raw ma-
terials for bread and, above all, a bar was placed on all specula-
tion in this most necessary article. Hence it was possible in the
following month of May to note that the regular supply of corn
was proceeding quietly, and that Switzerland was better sup-
plied with corn than at the beginning of the war.

In the case of various articles such as bread and milk, a prohi-
bition to export them was issued at once. It may cause surprise



642



SWITZERLAND



at first to be told that milk was included in such a prohibition.
But whoever is aware of the fact that nearly all the milk, so far
as it is not consumed within Switzerland, was worked up into
various shapes (e.g. cheese, butter, condensed milk) and then
was exported in great quantities, will not find fault with this
prohibition, when he learns that in Switzerland itself there were
periodical milk famines for the native consumers. And it came to
pass that milk itself was exported from Switzerland. For exam-
ple, in the frontier city of Basle, the inhabitants at the beginning
of the war were forced to exchange milk for vegetables grown in
Alsace, because for ages the supply of fresh vegetables for Basle
had been supplied by Alsace alone.

When the war had lasted about a year, and no end to it was
visible, the necessaries of life in Switzerland began to be not only
more expensive, but also scarcer. In June 1915 it was therefore
forbidden to export any articles of this kind. This regulation was
due to the act of profiteers, who bought these necessaries of life in
huge quantities, and then accumulated them for export to cen-
tral Europe. Switzerland now found itself in a rather awkward
position. If she forbade the export of necessaries of life, central
Europe menaced the stoppage on their side of the import into
Switzerland of the various articles which she most needed, such
as coal, raw materials, artificial manure, etc. On the other hand,
the Entente threatened Switzerland with a rationing of the con-
signments of necessaries of life in case the export of such to
Germany and Austria were not entirely stopped, for the Entente
had soon discovered that for central Europe this matter was the
sorest point in its war administration.

In the course of wearisome negotiations with both parties the
Swiss tried to find a satisfactory arrangement. So first they tried
to found with Germany some sort of organization for imports.
Industrial firms founded private import trusts, e.g. in Geneva,
under the name of Societe auxiliaire du Commerce et de I'ln-
dustrie. A similar trust was created in St. Gall, and in Basle a