demonstrated beyond all doubt the sinister policy of Russia, and was
the chief cause of the hatred with which the northern Power was
regarded. In England the bombardment passed almost unnoticed,
as it occurred simultaneously with the disaster to the " Titanic,"
which entirely absorbed public attention.
Persia in 1913. The year before the outbreak of the World
War found Persia in a miserable plight. Russia was constantly
strengthening her hold on the N. by seizing on, or creating, pre-
texts for further intervention. Great Britain was bound by the
Anglo-Russian Agreement to cooperate with the northern Power,
but did her best to help Persia to maintain her independence, a
task which native incapacity, intrigue and corruption rendered
very difficult. In her sphere of influence in the S. she supported
the organization and development of the Swedish gendarmerie
by advances of money and by other means, and tried to secure
capable governors for Pars and Kerman. The position in Pars,
the storm-centre of southern Persia, remained thoroughly unsatis-
factory. The Kashgai tribe, the most powerful in southern Per-
sia, defied the governor-general and raided in Pars as did the Boir
Ahmadis; the Khamseh Arabs raided the caravan routes in the
Kerman province; and other tribes raided in the Pars, Yezd or
Kerman provinces from time to time. It was generally realized
that the evil was beyond the powers of the Persian Government
to cure, but in pursuance of the British determination to avoid
any increase of commitments a decision that was eminently
sound action in the form of unsatisfactory palliatives was alone
taken. Throughout this period, no Persian Cabinet would as-
sume office without applying for a considerable advance of money
from the two Powers. Money was given, the question of repay-
ment was arranged, and there were practically no results. Much
of the money was embezzled and the balance was spent to small
advantage. The case of Capt. Eckford, who was killed by a raid-
ing party of Boir Ahmadi tribesmen between Shiraz and Dasht-i-
Arjan, is typical. The' governor-general of Pars, Mukhbir es
Sultaneh, who played a sinister r61e in the World War, took ad-
vantage of the incident to press for large sums of money, with
which he proposed to raise a force of over 1,000 men, and expressed
his confidence that he would be able to punish the Boir Ahma-
dis and other evil-doers without difficulty. The Swedish gen-
darmerie was already being organized in the province, but had
the fatal defect from the point of view of a Persian governor-gen-
eral that the money for their pay did not pass through his hands.
At Teheran the Treasury was empty. A Cabinet bent on reform
was being constituted with a programme which entailed a loan of
about 5,500,000. Meanwhile, in order to support the governor-
general of Pars in his unsuccessful attempts to restore order and
punish the Boir Ahmadis, the British legation advanced a sum
of 15,000 for three months and, later on, 100,000 for twelve
and a half months. In Feb. 1913, the two Powers advanced Persia
400,000. The negotiations for a larger loan were connected with
that of railway concessions of which some account is given below.
Salar ed Dauleh. Among the many difficulties of the Persian
Government, that of Salar ed Dauleh was particularly irritating.
That troublesome prince had rebelled against his brother Mahom-
med 'AH Shah, had been defeated and had been kept under honour-
able arrest. When Mahommed 'AH Shah made a bid to regain the
throne in 1911, Salar had, as mentioned above, organized a move-
ment from the S.W. and proclaimed himself Shah but, again, had
been decisively beaten. In 1912, the irrepressible prince reappeared
on the scene and, after occupying Kurdistan, threatened Hamadan.
Farman Farma, appointed governor-general of Kurdistan, held
Kermanshah against him, inflicting a repulse which drove Salar to
take to flight. He then proceeded to lead the life of a brigand chief,
fomenting local troubles and blackmailing any wealthy landowner
or merchant who was unfortunate enough to fall into his hands.
After the. formation of the Cabinet of 'Ala es Sultaneh in 1913, it
was decided to make terms with the prince who, mainly through
Russian support, was nominated governor of Gilan. The regent
realized the danger of appointing this " stormy petrel " to a post
where he controlled the main route between Russia and the capital,
and refused to sanction the appointment. The Russian Government,
for a while, declined to permit it to be cancelled, but finally at the
repeated request of the British, induced Salar to accept a pension
and leave Persia. During the same period there was considerable
anxiety as to the movements of the ex-Shah who, it was feared, was
intending to make another bid for the throne, but the enquiries
made by the British Government tended to show that there was no
real cause for anxiety on the subject.
The Swedish Geiularmerie. The general condition of Persia is one
of chronic anarchy which is more intense the nearer any particular
locality may be to the powerful raiding tribes. This anarchy the
Persian Government is impotent to stop until there is a radical
change of character and a movement towards virility and honesty
in the governing class. A study of the Blue Books from one point
of view is a summary of outrages and of ineffectual measures taken
for their punishment, the British minister making the best of an
almost hopeless situation and staving off a total collapse by a ham I-
to-mouth policy of doles, warnings and good advice. In view of the
fact that Russia had organized a Persian Cossack brigade in the N.,
it would have been only befitting that Great Britain should organize
a force for the restoration of order in the S., but so afraid of increased
commitments was the British Foreign Office that it agreed to the
Persian Government engaging Swedish officers for the formation of
a gendarmerie and, in the summer of 191 1, a mission composed of 20
officers reached Persia under Col. Hjalmarson. The Swedes had no
knowledge of the country, the Moslem people, the language or orien-
tal intrigue. The Russians eyed their mission unfavourably and
would have rejoiced at its failure. They considered that, if success-
ful, the gendarmerie would certainly become a dangerous rival to
the Cossack brigade, which was only nominally controlled by the
Persian Government and was actually under the orders of the
Russian legation. The Persian Cabinet, although anxious for die
success of the gendarmerie, was generally apathetic and also irregular
in making payments. The British legation, on the contrary, helped
and supported the new force in every way, realizing that unless it
succeeded in its very difficult task of restoring order, Persia might
well break up into a number of robber-infested provinces. The
Swedish officers who were drawn from the regular army, worked
hard to train their men. At first, they enlisted the riff-raft" of Teheran
but gradually recruited a better class of men. Their ignorance of
how to deal with Moslems led them to make many mistakes, but this
was after all only natural. Generally speaking, they made good
progress at the capital and in its neighbourhood.
The British legation, which was watching the dwindling of trade
in Fars and the increasing lack of law and order, constantly urged
the necessity for sending a force of gendarmes to that province and,
in Feb. 1913, the first detachment left for Shiraz. Col. Hjalmarson's
scheme for Persia was to place 1,500 men as road guards in Fars
supported by a mobile column of 1, 800 men. A contingent at Isfahan
would form a link with headquarters at Teheran. He also intended
to organize stations for the Qum-Sultanabad, for the Hamadan-
Kermanshah, and the Samnan-Damghan routes. These schemes
would require about 8,000 men and would bring up the number of
instructors to twenty-eight. The cost would have been about
400,000 for the first year and, later on, considerably more. The
problem of Fars was very difficult, owing both to the power and dis-
position of the Kashgais, Boir Ahmadis and other tribesmen, and the
rugged nature of the terrain. The Swedes made an unfortunate start
at Bushire where they enlisted 168 men locally, many of them noted
bad characters. These men, owing to two of their number being
stripped naked and flogged, all resigned. Probably it was fortunate
that they did so, for had they escorted a caravan of arms and
ammunition to Shiraz, as was the original intention, it is hardly likely
that it would have reached its destination with its contents intact.
The gendarmerie marched into Fars and on the way made a success-
ful attack on some Arab robbers, recovering a certain amount of
looted property. Owing to the men belonging to N. Persia it was
found impossible to take over the route near the coast, as the heat
overpowered them, but they occupied it as far as Kazerun. At first
the newcomers were not attacked, although the petty chiefs, who
lived by blackmailing caravans, realized that if they remained their
profits would cease. They were however afraid to move and the
gendarmerie gradually established themselves and engaged a num-
PERSIA
59
her of tribesmen as levies. In the vicinity of Shiraz, a detachment
was taken out to attack the Kashgais before it was sufficiently
trained, with the result that the men behaved badly and allowed
themselves to be disarmed. However, they had constructed posts
along the route and these they held at the outbreak of war.
The Bakhtiari Domination. The chief role in the Persian revolu-
tion had been played by the Bakhtiari tribe which, entirely owing
to the influence of Sirdar-i-Assad, had marched on Teheran and
secured the abdication of Mahommed 'Ali Shah. During the years
that followed, not only had they held the chief posts but their
tribesmen had been the mainstay of the constitution. Whenever an
expedition had been sent out, they drew money, arms and ammuni-
tion, most of which ultimately reached the Bakhtiari country.
Sirdar-i-Assad had undoubtedly cherished the ambition of founding
a new dynasty, but while events were favouring his designs, he be-
came blind. However, his tribe continued to dominate Teheran and
assumed a provocative attitude towards the gendarmerie. The
Swedish officers took prompt action, surrounded the Bakhtiari
quarter with machine-guns and artillery, and put an end to an
intolerable state of affairs from which Europeans as well as Persians
had suffered. The chiefs, perforce, agreed to dismiss the greater part
of their contingents and felt the humiliation so keenly that they
never again attempted to dominate the capital.
German Activity before the World War. For some 20 years before
the war, Germany had made strenuous efforts to increase her
influence and interests in Persia. Perhaps the most definite success
gained at the capital was the opening of a college staffed by German
professors, to which the Persian Government was induced to con-
tribute a handsome annual grant.
But to realize the persistence with which her policy was conducted,
attention must be turned to the Persian Gulf. Before 1896 Germany
had no representative or trade in that torrid region but, in that
year, the campaign opened by the firm of Wonckhaus establishing
itself at Lingeh where it began dealing in mother-of-pearl; and, in
1897, a German vice-consulate was founded at Bushire. Three years
later Germany made great efforts to purchase a site for the terminus
of the Bagdad railway at Kuwait, but the astute Sheikh Mubarak
had previously concluded a secret treaty with Great Britain by the
terms of which, in return for protection, he agreed not to sell or
lease any of his territory without the consent of that Power. Ger-
many did not accept this rebuff as final and induced Turkey, mem-
bers of Mubarak's family, and the Wahabis to take a hand in the
game, but all direct attacks were foiled by British sea-power. A
more successful plan was to induce the Turks to establish posts in
Khor 'Abdalla, an inlet running from behind Bubiyan Is. to within
30 m. of Basra. The fact that the creek was situated in Mubarak's
territory mattered nothing, and these posts were occupied until the
outbreak of the World War. Five years after its foundation at
Lingeh, the firm of Wonckhaus, supported by German subsidies,
opened its headquarters on the Bahrein Is. with branches at Basra
and Bandar 'Abbas. The reason for the change of headquarters was
soon evident as the islands are situated among the pearl banks, of
which Germany attempted to gain control through a lease derived
from the Sultan, whose claims in the Persian Gulf were shadowy.
The little island of Halul, which is situated in the centre of the banks,
was particularly aimed at, but Great Britain intervened and spoilt
the new scheme. Germany was indefatigable in her efforts. Foiled
entirely as regards the pearl fisheries, she attempted to control the
working of the red oxide deposits "ol Abu Musa. The Sheikh of
Sharja, a Trucial chief, bound by treaty with Great Britain not to
enter in an agreement with any other Power, had granted a con-
cession for working these deposits to three Arabs, two of whom lived
at Lingeh, while the third partner was his own subject. Wonckhaus
acquired the concession which the Sheikh promptly cancelled, send-
ing a large body of his subjects to expel the concessionaires. This
action raised a storm in the German press, but the case was too weak
to be supported and merely a formal protest was made. The last
attempt to be recorded was to secure a large piece of land along the
river bank at Mohammerah, with the object of creating a German
settlement, quays, etc., but again British vigilance was too strong.
Much credit is due to Sir Percy Cox, the British Resident, for foiling
every German attempt. In spite of these failures, in 1906 the Ham-
burg-Amerika Co. started a service to the Persian Gulf. The first
steamer created a sensation, lavish hospitality being dispensed to all
comers, who also welcomed the novelty of a band. Trade was small
at first and native passengers were not encouraged, but shipments
of railway material helped matters and ultimately a flourishing
trade was established. Great Britain, at the actual outbreak of war,
was engaged in negotiations with Germany and Turkey. So far as
the former Power was concerned, but for the war she would have
secured a strong position at Basra, the destined terminus of the
Bagdad railway. The suzerainty of Turkey over Kuwait was also
acknowledged. In other words British predominance in the Persian
Gulf would have been weakened. So far as this important problem
was concerned, the results of the war have been beneficial.
Persia at the Outbreak of the World War. The regent left Per-
sia for more than a year in 1912, merely returning to arrange the
coronation of the young Shah. This took place with due pomp
and circumstance in July 1914 and, as Nasir el Mulk left Persia
again after the ceremony, the young monarch had hardly taken
up his duties when the war broke out. His Majesty summoned
the Majlis and duly proclaimed the strict neutrality of Persia.
The position was, however, very difficult. The grandees were, in
many cases, only anxious to receive money from one or more
sides; the masses hated the Russians and disliked and mistrusted
the British for being friends of their enemies. There was sympa-
thy in some quarters for the Turks and " let the Christians devour
one another " was frequently heard. But the outstanding feature
was the powerlessness of Persia. Her military forces included the
Cossack brigade 8,000 strong, the Swedish gendarmerie 7,000
strong, and the useless Persian troops under Persian officers.
At first sight it would seem unlikely that remote Persia should
become a war theatre, but actually this was bound to be the case,
unless she could defend her neutrality. A reference to the map
will show that Azerbaijan, the N.W. province of Persia, marches
with Turkey on the W. and with Russia to the N. Furthermore
an advance by either belligerent through Persian territory would
enable that Power to outflank the other and operate in open
country, whereas a direct attack could only be made across the
very high range which runs from the shores of the Black Sea to
Mount Ararat. This strategical fact had been realized by Russia
and Turkey before the outbreak of the World War, and both Pow-
ers, taking advantage of the impotence of Persia, had established
themselves in Persian territory in the vicinity of Lake Urmia, the
Turks holding the chief passes on the Perso-Turkish frontier
which was only finally delimitated just before war began.
Russo-Turkish Operations in Azerbaijan. At the outbreak of
hostilities the Russians, in this section of the war theatre, as-
sumed the offensive and drove the Turks back on Van. However,
the Kurds on both sides of the frontier rallied to the Turks and,
finding Tabriz undefended, entered it in Jan. 1915. They then
moved northwards along the road to Julfa, only to be repulsed by
a Russian detachment which subsequently reoccupied Tabriz. At
Urmia the Kurds, driving in front of them the Christian tribes-
men of Targavar, assaulted the town, hoping to massacre its
Christian inhabitants. But, aided by a small Russian detach-
ment and the tribesmen of Targavar, the townspeople drove off
the enemy. The Russians, in view of the Turkish invasion of the
Kars province, were obliged to draw in their outlying detach-
ments, and this was followed by the exodus of 10,000 Christians.
In the spring of 1915, after the crushing defeat of the Turks at
Sarikamish, the Russians reoccupied Urmia and advanced to Van.
They were joined by the Assyrian Christians of Kurdistan, who,
when left alone to bear the brunt, actually migrated with their
families and flocks to the neighbourhood of Urmia, whence they
raided their enemies the Kurds and generally did good service
to the Russians, until the disintegration of the Russian army.
Operations in S.W. Persia. Before war was declared by Tur-
key, the Government of India took the wise precaution of des-
patching a brigade of Indian troops to the Bahrein Islands. At
the outbreak of hostilities, this force pushed up the Shatt al 'Arab
to protect the important refineries of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. on
the island of Abadan. This brigade was rapidly increased to a
division which, after defeating the Turks at Sahil, a few miles
above the oil refineries, occupied Basra on Nov. 23. The occu-
pation of Basra effectually protected the oil refineries, but these
works in their turn depended on the oil-fields at Maidan-i-Naftun
and the vulnerable pipe-line which was laid through Ahwaz and
was 150 m. in length. The neighbouring tribesmen, partly
through propaganda and partly through fanaticism, had breached
and fired the pipe-line in several places. The Bakhtiari tribe, with
which the British had maintained friendly relations for many
years and which owned the ground on which the oil-wells were
being worked, was generally hostile, the arrangement sometimes
being that the fathers professed pro-British sympathies while the
sons were fighting for the enemy. To protect the pipe-line, a
brigade was despatched to Ahwaz, where it was faced by a con-
siderable number of Turks supported by thousands of tribesmen.
A reconnaissance in force found the enemy much stronger than
was expected and was obliged to retreat with heavy losses, but
6o
PERSIA
the enemy showed no inclination to attack the main body of the
British who, for some time, maintained a defensive attitude.
In the spring, Maj.-Gen. Sir G. Gorringe was ordered to attack
the Turks with the i2th division. The enemy retreated and
Gorringe, after dealing with the hostile Beni Tauf, drove them
back on Amara, which had meanwhile been captured by Maj.-
Gen. Sir Charles Townshend. As a result of these operations,
Persian soil was cleared of the enemy, the local tribes made their
submission, the pipe-line was repaired, and the valuable oil
again flowed along it.
German Activity in Persia. It is interesting to study the policy of
Germany in the Middle East after the outbreak of the World War.
Its object was to embarrass Russia and, still more, Great Britain, by
forcing Persia and Afghanistan into the war on their side, and by
creating disturbances on the frontiers of India and inside India.
The scheme was sound, for, if Persia alone had declared for the
Central Powers, the claim that Islam was on their side might have
brought in Afghanistan. As it was, with comparatively small forces
and at a relatively small cost, Germany certainly drew forces to
Persia, which would otherwise have been available for other fronts.
Had it been possible to march a Turkish brigade across Persia to
Afghanistan, the Amir would probably have been obliged to join in an
invasion of India or would have been killed. India at that time
was weakly held, while the " Emden " had cut her sea communica-
tions. In the many arguments shown for and against the advance on
Bagdad, this important question is apt to be neglected.
The plan of operations in Persia was two-fold. Agents well-
furnished with arms and money were sent to enlist levies and to
march across central and southern Persia, murdering British and
Russian officials, and plundering and driving out the small English
colonies. These groups were to form supports to missions destined
for Afghanistan and Baluchistan. These latter bore letters on vellum
written to the address of the Amir of Afghanistan and the ruling
princes of India, and signed by the German Foreign Secretary. They
also had various German decorations for distribution. They carried
on a propaganda which was anti-Christian, giving out that the
Kaiser and his people had become converts to Islam and that the
former was now known as Hajji Wilhelm. The most successful
German agent and the earliest in the field was Wassmuss, who
before the war was consul at Bushire. He succeeded in organizing a
strong anti-British confederacy in Tangistan, Dashti and Dashtistan,
although there was also a pro-British party in these districts. The
attacks on Bushire forced the British to increase the small number
of troops that normally sufficed to guard the important wireless
installation and the cable. Its defence suffered from the fact that the
cable station was at Reshire, six m. distant, while the residency and
other houses occupied by the British covered a large area outside the
town. The Tangistanis made several daring raids, in one of which
two British officers were killed. The strongly anti-British attitude
of the Persian Government, which made no effort to protect the
British colony, resulted in the temporary occupation of Bushire
by the British, a step that afforded German propaganda a real chance
that was fully exploited. Generally speaking, the activity of Wass-
muss detained troops at Bushire, which were sorely needed else-
where. In Pars, too, Wassmuss was equally successful. He found
Mukhbir es Sultaneh, the governor-general, strongly pro-German
owing to his education at Berlin. He also found the Swedish officers
of the gendarmerie equally friendly and, through their instrumental-
ity, he won over that force to his side. As a result, in the autumn,
the British vice-consul was murdered and, shortly afterwards, the
consul and the entire colony were arrested and taken to the coast,
the men being held prisoners by the Tangistanis, while the women
were sent to Bushire. Qawam el Mulk, chief of the Khamseh Arabs,
who was acting governor-general, was driven out and retired to
Lingeh, thus leaving the German consul supreme in Fars.
The main route by which German parties entered Persia from
Bagdad was through Kermanshah and Hamadan. In April 1915,
the Turks advanced on Kermanshah with a force mainly composed
of levies which expelled the British colony. The German consul at
Kermanshah engaged levies and carried on a vigorous propaganda ;
he also drove back the British and Russian consuls when they sought
to return under Persian escort. At Isfahan, Pugin, dressed as a
Persian, with the profession of Islam on his lips, persuaded the
credulous citizens and their religious leaders that the Kaiser was
indeed a hajji or pilgrim to Mecca. Assassination was deliberately
employed. First the Russian vice-consul was murdered and, later,
the British consul-general was wounded and his Indian orderly
killed. A letter from a German official, Seiler, was subsequently
intercepted, in which he gloried in having arranged this cowardly
stroke. Farther E. at Yezd, enemy parties looted the treasury of the