was allowed to procure a supply of provisions sufficient for over
three months. In Basle the so-called " Central Bureau for Coal "
was set up. Any person who required more than five tons of German
coal had to take a share in the aforesaid company, or else to pay an
extra 2 per ton. The object was to secure to Germany an adequate
money advance, probably in order to compensate her for the loss on
the exchange. Germany was required to provide solvent guarantors, :
so as to make sure that the money would be forthcoming. Later on,
a local " Coal Supply Bureau " was set up in every town and every \
parish, which fixed the amount that any person could be allowea,
and supervised the distribution. The prices for good coal (including
merchants' profits) amounted to 10 per ton. New restrictions ;
were often issued. The census of the amount of coal was soon fol-
lowed by its rationing. It is well known that Switzerland, apart '.
from peat and some slate coal, possesses no coal proper. That fact
suffices to prove how dependent she is in this respect on foreign sup- i
plies. A ' Swiss Coal Co." was formed, the object of which was to '
support financially efforts to find more coal in the country. Re- I
searches were carried on all over the land, and a certain amount of
coal of poorish quality was found in the cantons of Berne and of
the Valais. Peat too was cut, wherever there was a possibility of the
smallest supply. But one cannot be surprised that, despite the high j
prices, the quantity of this coal fell far short of the amount required. ',

Soon after the scarcity of coal began, and particularly by reason
of the rise in its price, the railways and the steamboats on the
Swiss lakes were forced not only to raise their fares, but to take
other restrictive measures. First of all the "excursion tickets"
were suppressed, and then also the cheaper sorts of return tickets
abolished (1917). The circulation of trains was reduced from March I
1918 by a third. In Nov. 1918 the State railways raised their
tariff for goods by about 80%, and in the same month experiments
were made with supplying locomotives with wood instead of coal,
and this, in consequence of the ever-increasing coal famine, even in
the case of fast trains. The cantons were each bound to deliver a
certain quantity of wood, according to their size and their supplies.
Canton Berne, in particular, had to furnish very large quantities of
beech wood. Previously, the whole supply of fuel had been seized
by the State. All public bureaux and post-offices had to reduce the
hours during which they were open, schools had to have holidays,
etc. One restricted railway scheme appeared after another, and
from Dec. I the circulation of travellers, on those bits of the rail-
ways which were still run by steam, was provisionally entirely sus-
pended on Sundays and festivals. The only trains allowed on those
days were those which carried milk. At the same time the distribu-
tion of letters on Sundays was discontinued.

In this time of need Strenuous attempts were made by the Swiss
authorities to electrify the railway lines, where this could be done



SWITZERLAND



645



most efficaciously. The private non-State railways were encour-
aged to do the same, and subsidies were promised to them for that pur-
pose. Although, with certain exceptions, such as the St. Gottnard
line and some smaller bits, this permission could not be utilized to
the extent required, this is to be explained by the unheard-of prices
asked for raw materials. The purchase of electrical machines alone
absorbed such huge sums that the necessary capital could not be
brought together.

In Oct. 1920 a fall in the price of coal took place, and the supply
also gradually became better than heretofore, so that in the winter
of 1920-1 the rationing of coal was abolished. The coal supply
organization in Basle was wound up. But now another difficulty
appeared. In consequence of the augmented supply the " Central
Bureau for Coal" had acquired great quantities of coal at prices
which were still high. Likewise the supply of peat had increased in
amount. But as the coal prices sank the supply could not keep pace
with the reduction in prices unless at a great loss. Business men com-
plained that they could get coal direct from the pits at lower prices
than those payable in Switzerland. The Swiss executive resolved to
give financial aid for the distribution of the existing stocks in the coun-
try at cheaper prices. But it imposed on each ton of imported coal
an extra customs duty, and this measure was to last until this
advance was reimbursed.

Treaties. In order to complete the picture of the economic diffi-
culties which existed in Switzerland during the war we must here
add a short account of the treaties which she was compelled to con-
clude with the belligerents.

The " S.S.S." (Sociele suisse de Surveillance economique) , intended
to regulate the circulation and employment of wares in the interest
of the Entente, was founded on Oct. 1 1 1915. At the same time the
" Treuhandstelle " for commerce with the Central Powers came
into existence.

On Sept. 2 1916 the so-called Economic Agreement was con-
cluded to facilitate the exchange of goods. Germany by this had
to release per month 253,000 tons of coal, and the amount of iron
and steel required by Switzerland. Switzerland, on the other hand,
handed over products of milk, meat, etc. A Swiss export com-
mittee looked after the export of war supplies, produced with Ge^-
man raw materials (the so-called " Swiss Central Iron Bureau ").
It was forbidden to use German iron or German coal for the produc-
tion of war supplies destined for the Entente.

On Aug. 20 1917 a new arrangement was made. Germany was
to grant permission to export 200,000 tons of coal at 3. 123. a ton,
and 19,000 tons of iron and steel, in both cases per month. On its
side, Switzerland was to grant Germany a credit per month of
800,000 (foundation of the " Central Bureau for Coal ").

On Sept. 29 1917 this arrangement was followed at once by a
similar agreement with France. A group of Swiss banks granted to
a group of French banks a credit per month of 500,000, this to
last from October to December. In return Switzerland obtained from
France certain economic reliefs. After two months this arrange-
ment was renewed for 10 months, the credits allowed rising with
certain improvements in the import of goods. On March 20 1918
a similar credit was granted to a group of English banks, the monthly
maximum amount being fixed at 400,000.

On Aug. 30 1917 an agreement with France and Italy was con-
cluded for the export of wood, to be worked up, from Switzerland.
On Dec. 5 1917 the United States also made an agreement to supply
240,000 tons of bread-stuffs, till the next harvest. Other kinds of goods
were " contingented." The lack of room on ships delayed, how-
ever, the delivery of these supplies very much. In place of the
agreement with Germany (which had run out) a new treaty, much
less favourable, was concluded (May 15 1918). Germany was
bound to give leave for the export of 200,000 tons of coal, iron, and
steel. The Swiss " Treuhandstelle " had to superintend the exchange
of goods according to the S.S.S. system.

The Economic Agreement of May 5 1915 with Italy was still in
existence. But on Nov. I 1918 an economic and financial treaty
was made with this country, as also with France and England. The
credit to be allowed every month was fixed at a maximum of 200,000,
but the amount of imports was limited.

In order to execute all these financial obligations of Switzerland
the " Swiss Financial Association " was founded in Lucerne on
Aug. I 1918. To protect itself against the imminent danger of a
maritime blockade, Switzerland agreed with Germany on April 24
1918 that free passage should be given for all cargoes destined for
Switzerland.

In a fresh financial agreement with France (July 19 1919) Switz-
erland obtained a credit of about 1,250,000. The economic treaty
with this country ran from March 25 1919 to the end of 1919. In
Oct. and Nov. of that year the contingents of Switzerland for
watches and embroideries were somewhat raised. In a fresh agree-
ment of March 10 1920 a bargain was made with Switzerland for
the delivery of 10,000 tons of coal (brown coal) from the pits on the
left bank of the Rhine each month. Switzerland had to supply,
among other things, electric power, but the promised amount of
manure received by Switzerland was quite insufficient.

At the end of Nov. 1919 a new compensation treaty was made
with Italy about the delivery of oil-cake and hay in exchange for
cattle, for breeding and use.



The coal agreements came to an end in the beginning of 1919.

On Jan. 22 1919 an economic treaty was made with the United
States ; bigger contingents of goods were secured to Switzerland and
a tonnage of 70,000 (soon raised to 100,000), England and France
guaranteeing these amounts.

On March 25 1919 yet a new agreement was made with France
about the supply of goods. France promised to deliver 60,000 tons
of coal from Lorraine per month (at 4. l6s. a ton) and also manure
and facilities for the transport of goods. On its side Switzerland
engaged to deliver cattle for breeding and certain goods (chocolate,
watches, embroideries, etc.) tothevalueof about 108,000 per month,
and also a new credit not to exceed about 1,500,000 at the most.

The credit arrangement with England of March 20 1919 was not
renewed. Later on, England too raised the contingents which
could be imported, and sanctioned (March I 1919) again the admit-
tance of embroideries and silken goods. On April 28 1919 the
" black lists " were abolished, and also the certificates of nationality
and the contingents of imports permitted by the S.S.S.

Such were the economic agreements which Switzerland had to
sign. Her economic dependence on foreign countries is thus abun-
dantly clear, and yet it must be said that all the belligerents had
taken much kindly notice of her position in this way or in another.
It must be recognized that the Swiss authorities managed to get
well through all their difficulties, and did not fail to take precau-
tionary measures (sometimes very incisive) to provide the Swiss
with all the necessaries of life. But, in consequence of the incredible
rise in prices and the excessive prices- of necessaries of life, even of
those which are most indispensable, they were unable to bring it
about that the distress of the people should not lead to dissatisfac-
tion, complaints, and great discontent.

General Strike of Nov. 12 1918. The Swiss Socialists (or Social
Democratic party) were never stronger, and to a certain degree
more feared, than towards the end of the fourth year of the war.
The rise in prices of all commodities, and too the unforeseen and
the previously unknown dearth of dwelling houses, were utilized
very cleverly and ably for the purposes of propaganda, and
brought great reinforcements to the Socialists. Protest meetings
against too high prices were organized, and these were sometimes
accompanied by political demands which caused serious restless-
ness. The revolution that had broken out in Russia in the preceding
year and the break-up (Oct. 1918) of Germany, from the military
point of view, and in part also from the political point of view,
hurled their waves of revolt as far as Switzerland. Here the
leaders of the workmen imagined that the moment was come for
violent action. The crisis was the summoning of troops to
Zurich, the Government of which on occasion of the memorial
day (organized by the Socialists) of the Russian Revolution,
feared serious riots. The calling of the troops to Zurich was con-
sidered by the workmen as a provocation, and the reply was a
general strike for 24 hours, which very soon developed into an
unrestricted general strike in the whole of Switzerland. The
railways ceased to run, and in most Swiss towns the entire body
of workmen took a holiday, though not in the rural districts or in
western Switzerland where the strike was sometimes only a
partial cessation of work, and ended in a speedy breakdown. In
order to make this general strike more popular with the workmen
the so-called " Olten Committtee of Action " put forth a social
and political programme, which was submitted for speedy
acceptance to the authorities, and included the following de-
mands. The immediate transformation of the Government of
the country so as to be in accordance with the will of the people.
The new Government was to bind itself to the following pro-
gramme at the very least ; new election of the " Conseil National "
according to the principles of proportional representation;
voting rights of all kinds for women; introduction of the gen-
eral obligation to work, and of the 48-hour week in all public
offices and private businesses; the reorganization of the army
so as to make it the army of the people; the securing of the sup-
plies of necessaries of life, this provision to be carried out with
the agreement of the rural producers; insurance for old and sick
persons; State monopoly of imports and exports; and redemp-
tion of all State debts by the rich.

The Swiss executive refused to negotiate with the strikers, and
the peasants made a show of cutting off the milk supplies of the
towns. Another hope too of the strike leaders failed. They had
expected that the soldiers, especially the members of the asso-
ciation of the " League of Soldiers " (thought to be imbued with
revolutionary ideas and later forbidden by Gen. Wille), would



646



SWITZERLAND



naturally refuse military obedience. The military authorities,
however, had taken the precaution to summon trusty troops
from the rural and Alpine regions, and so the leaders of the
strike saw their hopes falsified. When the news spread of the
ultimatum issued by the Swiss executive to end the strike at
once, otherwise the strike leaders would run the risk of being
put into prison, the general strike came to a natural end. Such
a strike has seldom broken down more wretchedly. The 48
signers of the " Olten Appeal " were accused of instigating the
strikers to mutiny, and so were handed over to the military
authorities for examination. By this accusation was meant any
appeal which directly or indirectly was made to the soldiers, with
the warning not to march against their own brothers, and not to
turn their weapons against the workmen, but, in case such a
command should be given, rather to refuse military obedience.
By far the greater number of the 48 signers were acquitted.
Only a few of the most prominent and the most compromised
leaders were kept, and received punishments ranging up to six
months' imprisonment. Here, as elsewhere, it became clear that
the greater part of the Swiss workmen never would approve a
united general strike with purely political aims.

Interned Prisoners. As early as Oct. 1914, a beginning was
made with the dispatch of the evacuated civilians home to
France, Germany, and Austria, passing through Switzerland.
And up to March 5 1916 some 60,000 persons were conveyed
back to France alone by the same route.

On Feb. 21 1916 an arrangement was finally made about the
exchange of the severely wounded German and French prisoners
who were to pass through Switzerland. After the consent of the
Swiss Red Cross had been previously obtained, this duty was
confided to it by a decree of the Swiss executive. Now began the
foreign action of that institute which lasted for five long years.
Constance and Lyons were fixed on as the exchange centres; the
trains were to pass through Switzerland at night, and the railway
carriages required were to be furnished by the State railways.

Before the actual transport took place, " selection committees "
visited the various prisoners' camps, in order to inspect the
severely wounded men, and to settle which should be included in
the exchange. The Swiss Red Cross agreed to defray all the
expenses for the food, etc., of these poor men, and their nurses
etc., but not the railway fares.

Besides the medical men, male Red Cross nurses accompanied
the trains, sometimes also soldier nurses, while women nurses
from nearly every Swiss nursing home looked after the invalids.
The journeys took place at longer or shorter intervals, but often
there were lengthy breaks, due to the state of the war, and to
difficulties that arose between the hostile states.

The Swiss people took a great and a very sympathetic share
in these transport trains. People flocked from long distances to
the railway stations merely to see the trains rush past, and had
the feeling that thereby they had showed their sympathy with
the unfortunate victims of the war. At the places where the
trains halted, the joy was enormous. At some spots the trains
had to stop because the people would block them by standing
on the rails, and a huge quantity of loving gifts, for which room
Was scarcely found, literally overflowed the Red Cross carriages.

The good example of France, Belgium, and Germany was fol-
lowed in Nov. 1916 by Italy and Austria also. The exchange sta-
tions here were Como-Monza and Feldkirch-Dornbirn, and many
trains came through with Austrians, Bulgarians, Turks, Serbs,
English, and Italians. Later on, when Austria resolved to re-
patriate the numerous Italian consumptives, whose illness was
still in the preliminary stages, special consumptive trains became
also necessary. Imbecile soldiers were transported in great num-
bers. Twice trains, with many such, came through, and no one
could determine their names or their homes.

A most pitiful and moving spectacle was the sight of the trains
filled with evacuated civilian travellers. Old men with snow-
white hair, women of all ages, and children, even unweaned
infants, were seen in these trains. These unfortunate persons
were warmly welcomed and well fed, in the most hospitable
fashion. It is a gloomy chapter in the history of the war.



The interned soldiers were mostly housed in the Alpine regions.
This took place for various reasons. First of all, the high air was
looked upon as a great factor in their convalescence, and then
again they were isolated from the temptations of bigger places
and towns, and, finally, in the tourist centres many hotels stood
empty, all ready to receive this new kind of guest, and well fitted
to shelter great bodies of interned.

No Swiss industry was so hard hit by the war in its very exis-
tence as the Swiss tourist traffic, once so flourishing. According
to the statisticians, milliards of francs were invested therein, and
so, soon after the outbreak of the war, special measures of protec-
tion (such as exemption from bankruptcy suits) and also acts of
charity had to be taken. What wonder then that the Swiss
authorities, by this action in favour of the interned, hoped to
kill two birds with one stone, and appropriate these small profits
to the stricken Industrie des Strangers ?

The daily sum paid for accommodation, etc., per head was
originally four francs, later five francs, and even in 1921 an extra
amount of one franc daily per head for 1918 was the subject of
negotiation. (These sums were paid by the respective states con-
cerned.) But no state, save defeated Germany, had agreed up to
June 1921 to this extra expense. The food was simple and
nourishing, and in some places it was more than good.

At the beginning of the period of internment the interned were
given free postage for all letters sent to their native countries.
And nothing too was charged for parcels sent thence to foreign
countries. This humane arrangement was afterwards first re-
stricted, and later on quite suppressed, as the war seemed to be
never ending, and the cost to the Swiss post-office ran up to
2,000,000, and even more.

A great difficulty arose as to the employment of the interned.
In some places they took to an industry which promised them
certain profits. Such were the beautiful, and even most artistic
works of art which were produced by simple and untrained sol-
diers. They acted as joiners, mechanics, turners, wove baskets,
made ropes, and nets, painted pictures, etc. In Thun, as early as
1916, a school of commerce was opened for the interned. The
universities of Basle, Berne, Geneva, Lausanne, and Zurich
allowed interned to matriculate as students. The Bernese Uni-
versity Committee provided in 42 prisoners' camps outside
Switzerland both teachers and students with money, food of
various kinds, clothing and books. The interned were permitted
to hold exhibitions of their products, and special committees were
founded to promote the sale of the fruits of their labour. Now
and then they received visits from high-placed countrymen (such
as Gen. Pau, etc.). They looked after their social amusements
themselves. One English committee even got together money
for the visits of English women to their husbands interned in
Switzerland. The English interned enjoyed the special sympathy
of the Swiss. The number of prisoners interned in Switzerland
was already in Aug. 1916, 18,936 11,823 French, 4,322 Ger-
mans, 1,607 Belgians, 1,183 English, and one Austrian. These
numbers later increased very much, and finally, when difficulties
arose about food in Switzerland, it could not possibly receive an
unrestricted number, and so after a certain time the interned
were exchanged for others.

When the internment of wounded prisoners was resolved on in
Switzerland this business was entrusted to the chief army medical
officer, and the Swiss Red Cross. Practically, the Red Cross took
charge only of the transport of the interned to and from Switzer-
land, everything else being supplied by the army authorities.
The interned had fewer invalids than the exchanged prisoners,
and so required only ordinary trains with occasional carriages
in which to lie down; but many persons seriously ill were sent
home, and the Swiss Red Cross looked after all such cases.

After the Armistice the principal transport of the prisoners
belonging to the Entente took its start. The sick and invalids
were partly sent for in special " sanitary" trains, French, Eng-
lish, American, and Italian, the nurses, etc., being supplied by
the Swiss Red Cross. All these journeys passed off without any
serious accidents, at least it never happened that any one was
injured, though the trains went at express speed.



SWITZERLAND



647



The Swiss Red Cross spent (apart from the railway fares)
some 13,000 in carrying out this transport. No fewer than
8i,377 persons were conveyed by the Swiss Red Cross, and that
without counting the numerous civilians interned and civilians
evacuated, who had previously passed through Switzerland, the
number of these amounting to several hundred thousands. All
these persons travelled through Switzerland.

In April 1919 there were still 5,000 Germans interned in
Switzerland. These could only be sent home later, shortly
before the home-coming of the prisoners interned in France.

The international action of the Swiss Red Cross extended also
to investigations as to prisoners and missing soldiers. From all
parts enquiries arrived, relating to the whereabouts of various
soldiers. This was a task which properly belonged to the Inter-
national Committee at Geneva, specially created for this purpose.
In many cases, however, the Swiss Red Cross, thanks to its
fortunate and useful communications by reason of the exchange
of the interned, could answer these enquiries. With this object
a special office was set up in Berne for the interned prisoners of
war in Switzerland, and to this all enquiries were to be addressed,
whether for interned persons or missing persons.

International Red Cross at Geneva. The following was the
share of this well-known institution. When hatred and reprisals
on both sides got the upper hand, it issued a series of appeals,
first of all in favour of common action in carrying out the task
of the Red Cross, next to the belligerents on behalf of the
wounded and sick, of the nursing staff, of their supplying necessary
wants in accordance with the Convention of Geneva, and of the
Hague Convention. Next came protests against the torpedoing
of hospital ships and against the bombardment of hospitals on
the field, the protection of Red Cross unions, the recognition of
the Red Crescent, as to the treatment of prisoners, and the dis-
tribution of money collected (about 13,000) to the Red Cross
associations of the belligerents, as to the reception of Red Cross
sisters in Switzerland for rest and refreshment, missions to visit
camps of sick prisoners in Italy, Bulgaria, etc., and prisoners'