TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD (1857- ), 27th President of the
United States (see 26.354), antagonized a considerable branch
of his own party in 1911 by his endeavour, which proved un-
successful, to secure a reciprocity agreement with Canada.
Meanwhile wide public interest had been awakened in the con-
servation of national resources and the President's attitude was
attacked by the conservationists. In 1909 Gifford Pinchot, chief
forester, charged Richard A. Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior,
with being opposed to conservation. A Congressional committee,
after investigation, exonerated the Secretary, but he later re-
signed. The attack upon Ballinger was denounced by the Presi-
dent, who continued to be criticized in connexion with the sale
of public lands, and who dismissed Pinchot from office. The
President lost ground also as a result of a breach of friend-
ship between himself and Theodore Roosevelt, who supported
Pinchot. In 1912 the President signed the Panama Tolls bill,
exempting American coastwise shipping from tolls; he affirmed
that it did not violate the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, and believed
also that the United States had the right to fortify the canal.
At the same time he expressed a readiness to arbitrate the ques-
tion with Great Britain, who had protested. Cleavage within
his party waSiCrystallized at the Republican National Convention
in 1912. In the pre-convention campaign Roosevelt came for-
ward as leader of the progressive wing against Taft as leader of
the conservative or " stand-pat " wing, and the mutual re-
criminations were bitter. At the convention, however, the con-
servatives controlled the party machine, and the committee on
credentials by arbitrary decisions excluded most of Roosevelt's
contesting delegates. Taft was renominated on the first ballot,
receiving 561 votes, 21 more than the required majority. Roose-
velt denounced the action of the convention and later was nomi-
nated by the newly formed National Progressive party. In the
ensuing election Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic nominee,
won an overwhelming victory, securing 435 electoral votes
to 88 for Roosevelt and 8 for Taft. President Taft carried
}nly two states, Utah and Vermont, and those only by small
pluralities. The general feeling throughout the country was
^hat President Taft had shown a deplorable lack of administra-
tive firmness, his good nature having caused him to vacillate.
3n retiring from the presidency in 1913 he became Kent pro-
'essor of law at Yale, but devoted much time to lecture engage-
ments. In 1913 he was elected president of the American Bar
Association, and in 1914 first president of the American Institute
}f Jurisprudence, organized to improve law and its administra-
tion. After the outbreak of the World War in 1914 he supported
President Wilson's strong stand for neutrality. In 1915 he
ipproved the Army League's campaign for preparedness. He
tfas an active promoter of the League to Enforce Peace, but
ifter America's entrance into the war he argued that victory was
lecessary for attaining lasting peace. In 1918 he was appointed
jy the President a member of the National War Labor Board
or arbitrating labour disputes during the war. In 1919 he
ndorscd the Peace Treaty of Versailles, regarding its most im-
wrtant part to be the Covenant of the League of Nations. He
.poke throughout the country in behalf of the League. After the
Senate's rejection of the Peace Treaty he urged reservations
f these would secure ratification. In July 1920 he was appointed
o represent the Grand Trunk railway on the board of arbitration
or determining the sum to be paid by the Dominion of Canada
when the road was to be made a part of the national system.
He supported Warren G. Harding, the Republican candidate
for president in 1920. On June 30 1921 he was appointed
by President Harding Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to
succeed Edward Douglas White, deceased.
He was the author of Popular Government: its Essence, its Per-
formance, and its Perils (1913) ; The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme
Court (1914); The United, States and Peace (1914); Ethics in Service
(1915, Yale lectures); Our Chief Magistrate and his Powers (1916,
Columbia lectures) and The Presidency: its Duties, its Powers, its
Opportunities and its Limitations (1916, lectures at the university of
Virginia).
TAGORE, RABINDRANATH (1861- ), Indian poet and
author, was a member of a well-known Bengali family noted for '
its activities in literature, art and religious reform as well as for
its public benefactions. In 1921 the head of the orthodox Hindu
branch was Maharaja Bahadur Sir Prodyot Coomar Tagore
(b. 1873), a great-nephew of Prosunno Coomar, who was the
first Indian to be nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council
and founded the Tagore law professorship in the university of
Calcutta. The grandfather of Rabindranath was Dwarkanath,
" merchant, philanthropist and reformer," who was known to his
contemporaries as " Prince Tagore." He visited England in
1842 and again in 1845, sat to D'Orsay for his portrait, and,
dying of fever in London in 1846, was buried at Kensal Green.
In conjunction with Raja Rammohan Roy he initiated the
movement of religious reform which took shape as the Adi
Brahmo Somaj. This work was continued by his son Maharshi
Devendranath, of whose seven sons, Dwijendranath, the eldest,
devoted himself to the study of philosophy; Satyendranath,
the second, was the first Indian to enter the covenanted civil
service and served for 35 years in the Bombay Presidency; and
Jyotirendranath, the third, was an accomplished musician.
Their cousins, Abanindranath (b. 1871), Gogonendranath and
Narendranath, became distinguished artists. Rabindranath,
the youngest son, was sent to England to study law, but soon
returned. In 1901 he established the famous Shantiniketan,
or abode of peace, at Bolpur, a village 93 m. from Calcutta.
Originally organized as an asram, or retreat, by the Maharshi,
it was developed by Rabindranath into a school conducted on
unconventional lines, and he aimed at enlarging it into an in-
ternational university which should comprehend the whole range
of eastern culture. His outlook upon the west was thus summar-
ized by him in a letter published in the Indian press at the close
of 1919: " The bulk of English people can never be in a normal
state of mind with regard to us, our situation being unnatural,
and I am impelled to think that it is best for us to do our own
work quietly in our own surroundings." Gandhi's policy of non-
cooperation was, however, severely condemned by him as per-
verted nationalism, " which was making of India a prison,"
in a letter addressed to the principal of his school at Bolpur
in June 1921. He paid frequent visits to Europe, Japan and the
United States (where his son Rathindranath became a student
in the university of California), and carried through several lectur-
ing tours. His reputation as a writer among his own countrymen
was early assured, and the 30 poetical and 28 prose works com-
posed by him in Bengali are now regarded as classics. The Eng-
lish public first became interested in his works in 1912, and his
fame rapidly spread. In 1913 he was awarded the Nobel Prize
for literature and utilized the whole amount, 8,000, for the
upkeep of the school at Bolpur. He was given the degree of
Doctor of Letters in the university of Calcutta and accepted a
knighthood in 1915, but addressed a letter to the Viceroy in 1919,
resigning the title as a protest against the methods adopted for
the repression of disturbances in the Punjab.
His more important books, of which English translations have
been published, are the poems Gitanjali (Song Offerings) (1913),
The Crescent Moon (1913), The Gardener (1913), Songs of Kabir
doiS), Fruit Gathering (1916), Stray Birds (1917), The Lovers
Gift and the Crossing (1918); the plays Chitra (1914), The King of
the Dark Chamber (1914), The Post Office (1914), The Cycle of Spring
(1917)' Sacrifice (1917), and other plays; the novels, The Home and
the World (1919), The Wreck (1921); as well as a volume of letters,
Glimpses of Bengal (1921), and the short stories Hungry Stones
TANGANYIKA TERRITORY
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
(TANGANYIKA TERRITORY)
Scale. I: 7.500.000 MILES
SO IOO r*g
Boundary 1914 . - '1921
Railways
Roads
IRANGI
"O
otondoa Iranfei
MOZAMBIQUE ,: 4 |i a 'o* on n? . ""." . ?
\ Z A.-M B I Q'U E >-
(1916) and Mashi (1918); and republished lectures, Sadhana, or
the Realization of Life (1913)1 Nationalism (1917), Personality (1917).
He also published his Reminiscences (1917).
See W. W. Pearson, Shantiniketan (1917); article in Hindusthanee
Student (March 14 1921). (H. E. A. C.)
TANGANYIKA TERRITORY, the name officially given in
Jan. 1920 to that part of ex-German East Africa administered
by Great Britain. It has an area of some 365,000 sq. m., com-
pared with the 385,000 sq. m. of the former German protectorate,
the rest of the region having been added to Belgian Congo except
the small Rionga district at the mouth of the Rovuma, which
was incorporated in Portuguese East Africa. Urundi and
Ruanda, the provinces acquired by Belgium, were the most
populous parts of German East Africa, and whereas the popula-
tion of the German protectorate in 1916 was estimated at some
8,000,000 that of Tanganyika Territory in 1921 was under
5,000,000. Europeans in 1920 numbered about 2,200, of whom
1,400 were British and 300 Greek. The largest towns were
Dar es Salaam (20,000 inhabitants) and Tanga (16,400) on the
coast, and Tabora (25,000) inland.
With the conquest of the country in 1916-7 civil administra-
tors were appointed by the British and Belgians in the areas
they occupied, Mr. (afterwards Sir) H. A. Byatt being chosen by
the British. His headquarters were at Dar es Salaam. Iringa,
Mahenge and other regions were, until March 1918, adminis-
tered by Gen. Northey's chief political officer, Mr. (afterwards
Sir) H. L. Duff. At first the Belgians, with Col. Malfeyt as
Royal Commissioner, administered, from Tabora, the western
area from Victoria Nyanza to near the southern end of Tan-
ganyika. In March 1918 the Tabora region was taken over by
the British. By decision of the Supreme Council in May 1919
the mandate for German East Africa was assigned, without
qualification, to Great Britain, but Belgium advanced claims
to retain not only Urundi and Ruanda but a much larger area,
including the province of Ujiji, with the lake terminus of the,
railway from Dar es Salaam. The matter was settled by an
Anglo-Belgian agreement signed in Sept. 1919. By this agree-
ment Ujiji province went to Great Britain, and also such parts
of Urundi and Ruanda as were needed to allow the projected
railway from Tabora to Western Uganda a link in the Cape
to Cairo scheme to remain in British administered territory.
By another convention signed in March 1921 Belgium obtained
the right of transit of goods free of all custom duties over the
railway from Kigoma (the lake terminus of the line) to Dar es
Salaam, and in general by any other route adapted for transit,
TANKS
677
together with areas (on payment of nominal rent) at. both ports
for wharfs, bonded warehouses, etc. The districts which Bel-
gium had temporarily administered but which fell within the
British mandatory area were formally transferred to the
British administration on March 22 1921.
Orders in Council for the government of Tanganyika Territory
were made in July 1920. The next month the administrator,
Sir Horace Byatt, was gazetted governor and Sir William M.
Carter appointed Chief Justice. The terms of the mandate, as
proposed by Britain, were made public in March 1921.
In accordance with the terms of the Covenant of the League
of Nations the mandatory was bound to allow equality to na-
tionals of all members of the League in matters of residence,
trade and commerce. This condition had an important bear-
ing on the position of British Indians in the territory. It pre-
vented any discrimination being made against them, as had
been done in the neighbouring colony of Kenya. A proposal
had been made during the World War that the territory should
become, in effect, a reserve for India. This proposal could not
be adopted, but in Aug. 1919 the Colonial Office consulted the
Indian Government as to the desirability of setting aside special
areas for colonization by Indians. Investigations were made in
the territory by Sir Benjamin Robertson, with the result that
the Government of India in a despatch dated Feb. 10 1921
stated that it was improbable that Indian farmers would be
attracted to Tanganyika, where only large estates seemed
likely to succeed.
The Indian Government moreover drew attention to the
rights Indians possessed under the mandate and urged that
Indians should also be granted perfect political equality with
other settlers, of whatever nationality. Indians in Tanganyika
numbered in 1921 some 15,000. They had penetrated to every
part of the territory, and save for the competition of Greeks in
certain areas practically monopolized the retail trade.
The transition period 1918-21 proved difficult, and there was
much delay in setting up the new machinery of government. This
was in part inevitable, as until the Treaty of Versailles came into
force, an event delayed until Jan. 20 1920, the country was still
legally German territory. The whole of the German settlers were
repatriated and their estates sold during 1921. Until this process
was completed no new land grants were made, and agriculture was
practically at a standstill. A Land and Mines Department was,
however, formed towards the close of 1920, and mining regulations
were promulgated early in 1921. The only mineral worked on a
considerable scale was mica, the chief deposits being in the Uluguru
mountains. Between 1917 and 1920 mica valued at 40,000 was
exported for the British Ministry of Munitions. In March 1920 the
mines were closed. The alleged indifference of the administration to
the needs of the commercial and planting community evoked strong
protests, and further difficulties were caused by the change from the
German currency in rupees at 15 to the to the florin at 10 to the ,
preliminary to the substitution of the shilling for the rupee, as in
Kenya (see KENYA COLONY). The exports and imports for 1917-20,
taking the rupee at 15 to the , were:
Imports
Domestic
Exports
Re-exports
1917-8
1918-9
1919-20
1,109,000
1,007,000
1,158,000
591,000
674,000
1,330,000
36,200
26,200
96,300
These figures did not include sisal and cotton to the value of
284,000 exported by the custodian of enemy property nor the mica
exported for the Ministry of Munitions. The principal exports were
sisal, cotton, hides, skins, copra, coffee and ghee. Up to 1920 the
exports were mainly accumulated stocks. The chief imports were
cotton piece goods, rice and other foodstuffs. The re-exports repre-
sented transit trade with the Belgian Congo. Trade was mainly
with Zanzibar, Kenya and India. For the year ending March 31
1920 the net tonnage of the ships cleared was 193,000 (154,000
British).
Sir Horace Byatt and his staff had a difficult task in building up a
new administration on the ruins of the German system. In native
affairs they sought to reestablish the old tribal organization, almost
destroyed under German rule, and steps were taken to abolish
slavery. During 1918 and 1919 the Government had to feed large
numbers of the people, who, as a result of continued drought, suffered
severely from famine. The Indian penal codes were introduced, but
it was not until 1921 that civil courts having jurisdiction over non-
natives were established. The absence of such courts was not an
unmixed evil in this period of transition, though traders, who could
not sue for debts, were loud in complaints. But the tendency to wild
speculation and to charge high rates of interest was checked. Cus-
toms laws with a general ad valorem duty of 10% on imports
similar to those in force in Kenya were introduced before the World
War ended, and, in 1921, British weights and measures. Revenue
was derived chiefly from the customs dues, trade taxes and licences,
and hut and poll taxes, each able-bodied male native paying not
fewer than three florins a year. While revenue naturally rose as the
area under civil administration increased, so likewise did expendi-
ture. Up to March 31 1920 the total revenue received was 1,596,-
ooo, and the total expenditure 1,365,000. It then became necessary
to spend much larger sums to put the country into working order,
and for the year ending March 31 1921 the Imperial exchequer made
a grant of 330,000. For the next financial year the Imperial
exchequer made a grant of 914,000 the Colonial Office had asked
f r '.500,000. Heavy expense was incurred in making good the
damage done during the World War to railways, roads and harbours.
The garrison maintained three battalions of the King's African
Rifles; cost about 250,000 yearly. (
Under British administration the German names given to certain
districts and towns were replaced by native names. The following
changes were made: Wilhelmstal district became Usambara district
and Wilhelmstal (town) Lushoto. Bismarckburg district became
Ufipa and Bismarckburg (town) Kasanga. Langenburg district
became Rungwe and Neu Langenburg (town) Ntukuyu. Wied^
hafen, on Lake Nyasa, became Manda. In 1917 Oldoinyo Lengai
(God's mountain) at the S. end of Lake Natron was in frequent
eruption; it is the only known active volcano in the territory. In
May and June 1919 very severe earthquakes occurred in the S.W.
part of the territory. By the fall of the side of a mountain near the
N.E. end of Lake Nyasa some 5,000,000 tons of earth and rocks
were displaced: the falls in the Livingstone mountains altered
considerably the face of the country.
See Report on Tanganyika Territory (1921), a valuable official
monograph covering the period to the end of 1920; the Colonial
Office List for parliamentary papers; A. S. and G. G. Brown, The
South and East African Year Book and Guide (London, annually) ;
Hans Meyer, Ostafrika (1914); F. S. Joelson, The Tanganyika Terri-
tory (1921), and the authorities cited under GERMAN EAST AFRICA.
(F. R. C.)
TANKS The name " Tank," applied during the World War
to a bullet-proof, armed, track-driven, climbing, automobile,
machine-gun destroyer, was first given to an engine of war in
Dec. 1915, as a blind to conceal the true nature of the experi-
mental fighting machine then being secretly constructed in
England. After the first appearance of the machine in the field
in Sept. 1916, the word was universally adopted. It is here
used to describe all armed and armoured automobiles of a fight-
ing type propelled on the caterpillar system. To the British
is due the credit of first conceiving and introducing this weapon,
which was destined to exert a decisive influence on the course
of the war on land.
The conditions responsible for the birth of the tank were not
in principle new. They were the same as have always existed
in war, but intensified by the application of modern methods
to the situation unexpectedly created by the course of the land
campaign on the western front. Neither the strategic develop-
ment nor the outcome of its full tactical exploitation had been
foreseen. It was owing to this that so vital a factor as the tank
proved to be should have had to be improvised during the course
of hostilities as the solution of an age-old problem. The problem
was that of giving effective assistance, in the shape of direct
protection, to infantry advancing under fire.
Apart from cooperation elsewhere, assistance can be given in
two ways. It can be effected either by artillery, which with its
power of long range action can support advancing infantrymen
whilst in motion, and therefore unable to make full use of their
rifles, by shooting over their heads, or more directly by the pro-
vision of some form of physical protection against blows or
missiles. The attempt to provide protection whilst retaining the
power of movement both for hand-to-hand fighting and also
against missiles, as opposed to that afforded by fortification to
troops when stationary, has recurred throughout the history
of warfare. The best known examples of it are the shield and
body armour carried or worn by the man. Though the need
for these did not then cease, their practicability was terminated
by the introduction of firearms, since no weight of material
that the human being or the horse could carry was of avail
against missiles propelled by the force of powder. There was
TANKS
also the idea of giving wheel-borne collective protection to sev-
eral men at a time, and devices for doing this have been numer-
ous, and have varied according to the progress of mechanical
knowledge and the resources available at the moment.
The Assyrians made use of war chariots, or mobile fortresses, which
were adopted from them by the Egyptians and Israelites. 1 Chariots
were also employed by the Chinese in 1200 B.C. Then, for siege
warfare, there were the Roman Testudo, or " Tortoise," and the
mediaeval Beaufroi, or "Belfry," which was usually assisted by the
" Cat " or " Sow," an engine of a more mobile type. About 1400
A.D. Conrad Kyeser wrote on this subject, and some 20 years later
Fontana and Archinger designed cars, the latter a large machine to
carry 100 men. In the middle of the I5th century appeared the
" Scottish War Carts," known also as " Tudor War Carts." In 1472
one Valturio designed a machine to be propelled by wind sails.
In 1482 Leonardo da Vinci wrote to Ludivico Sforza describing
a machine which, except in motive power, was in essentials the
counterpart of the tank. A battle car was designed for the Emperor
Maximilian I., and in 1558 Holzschuher described one for use with
infantry and cavalry. Eleven years later two land battleships are
stated to have been built by Simon Stevin for the Prince of Orange.
Except those propelled by the wind, all the above were moved by the
muscular power of men or horses. In 1634 David Ramsey took out
an English patent for a self-moving car, and Caspar Schott designed
one for use against the Turks. In 1769 Cugnot, a Frenchman,
actually constructed a steam-driven road car which could be used
in war ; and later Napoleon wrote a paper on the subject of the auto-
mobile in war. In 1855 James Cowan, in England took out provi-
sional protection for a " locomotive battery fitted with scythes to
mow down infantry," and endeavoured to persuade Lord Palmer-
ston to take up this adaptation of the chariot. Capt. Nadar
put forward a similar suggestion in 1870; and in 1900 John
Fowler, of Leeds, produced armoured steam traction engines for
S. Africa.
The introduction of rifled breech-loading firearms did not
force into use any system of man-borne or horse-borne pro-
tection, notwithstanding that the range, volume and accuracy
of all kinds of fire was immensely increased and its effect ren-
dered correspondingly more deadly. For, it was less possible
than it had been to produce shields or body armour which were
capable of resisting the greater penetration of the rifle bullet
and yet light enough to be carried; whilst no practical method of
mechanical propulsion across country of the heavy weights in-
volved in collective protection had been discovered. And yet,
as time passed, the need for some more intimate form of help
for the infantry soldier than that afTordcd by artillery grew
more insistent. It was accentuated by the invention of the
machine-gun and of the magazine and the automatic rifle, and
by every successive improvement in small arms or artillery.
In point of fact, however, the mechanical difficulties had been
overcome some years before 1914. The " caterpillar," or
" track," or " endless band " system of propulsion, by which
weight is distributed by the increase of the surface bearing on the
earth, instead of being concentrated, as with a wheel, and a better
tractive effect obtained, which had been known, and in the United
States largely employed, for some years, had furnished the key
to cross-country mobility; and the perfecting of the internal
combustion engine had subsequently given to the world com-
pact power with light weight.
The principle of the "footed wheel," "caterpillar," or " track "
system of propulsion appears to have originated in the patent of
Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1770 for a device whereby a portable
railway could be attached to a wheeled carriage. 2 This employed