and 1921 the whites had almost doubled in number, the increase
being principally due to the development of the gold and coal
mines. The growth of the white population gave the Transvaal
at the 1920 election 13 more seats in the Union Parliament than
the province had in 1910.
The chief towns are Johannesburg (total pop. 1911, 237,104,
whites only, 1918, 137,166) and Pretoria (total pop. 1911, 57,674,
whites only, 1918, 41,690). Besides Johannesburg there were on
the Witwatersrand the municipalities of Krugersdorp, Germiston,
Boksburg, Benoni, Roodepoort and Brakpan (the last named the
centre of the Far East Rand, being created a municpality in 1919),
approximately half the inhabitants of the province being concen-
trated on the Rand.
The chief executive officer is styled administrator, and provincial
government is in the hands of a provincial council, the system
being the same for all the provinces of the Union (for particulars
see CAPE PROVINCE). In the five years 1913-4 to 1917-8 the revenue
collected for provincial purposes rose from 602,000 to 815,000,
native pass fees providing half or more of the receipts. The Union
subsidy in the same period rose from 620,000 to 695,000. The
two main heads of expenditure were education and roads, bridges,
works. The sum spent on education was 665,000 in 1913-4 and
1,143,000 in 1917-8. In 1920 there were 1,040 State schools with
109,700 scholars. There were also 389 State-aided native schools
with 26,900 scholars. There was keen controversy over the language
question in the schools for white children. By an ordinance of 191 1,
which came into operation on Jan. I 1912, instruction up to stand-
ard IV. was to be in and through the " home language of the child" ;
a second medium might then be used if the parents so desired.
This arrangement ended an attempt to enforce bi-lingualism and
worked very fairly. In other respects the Transvaal was noted for
its many educational experiments.
Gold mining retained its position as the chief industry, the
Transvaal producing nearly half the world's output. There was a
notable increase in the output of coal, and with the provision of
railway communication to the Messina mines (situated in the
extreme N. by the Limpopo) the production of copper ore rapidly
increased. The output of tin from the Bushveld was also note-
worthy. Manufacturing industries were developed on the Rand.
The province retained its importance as a stock-raising country,
and there was a marked increase in the cultivation of maize and
tobacco (for statistics see SOUTH AFRICA).
Politics and parties in South Africa cut across provincial
boundaries, and the history of the Transvaal since 1910 is part of
that of the Union. The province presented in its social life many
extremes, the conservatism of the back-veld Boer contrasting
strongly with the progressive and democratic spirit of the dwellers
on the Rand. But both these elements had their counterparts
in other provinces. Party feeling was, however, more strongly
expressed in the Transvaal than elsewhere, and this led to the
introduction of politics into the provincial council, in which, at
the election of 1914, the Labour party gained a majority of one.
This election followed a great industrial upheaval on the Rand,
leading to serious riots and bloodshed. The white workmen on
the Rand formed the main strength of the Labour party, though
it had also a considerable following in Durban and Cape Town.
A considerable number of Boers in the western Transvaal tool
part in the rebellion of 1914, but the influence of Generals Both;
and Smuts kept many Boers loyal to the British connexion, a
was shown at subsequent general elections. At the 1920 electioi
the Nationalists, or Separatist party, gained 13, and at the 192
election 15 out of the 49 Transvaal seats how evenly the Dutcl
vote was divided was shown by the narrow majorities obtained ii
1921 in the rural areas, while in two constituencies the votin;
resulted in a tie. The 1920 election had been notable for tb
success of Labour candidates on the Rand; the election of 192:
saw the Labour representation of the province reduced from ij
to 5 members. Labour organizations were not confined to tin
whites, but extended to the natives, who showed unexpectcc
powers of combination and arranged strikes on customar
European lines. But neither this industrial movement amoni
the natives, nor their demands for political rights, was confinec
to the Transvaal.
The first administrator was Mr. Johann F. B. Rissik (Ministei
of Lands and of Native Affairs in the Transvaal as a self-govern
ing colony). He was reappointcd for a second term but resigneo
in 1917 to become a member of the Railways and Harbour Boarc
of the Union, being succeeded as administrator by Mr. A. G
Robertson, who had represented Wakkerstroom in the provincial
council. (F. R. C.) 1
TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853-1917), Englisf
actor and manager (see 27.234), died in London July 2 1917
The chief Shakespearean productions of his later years wen
Macbeth in 1911 and Othello in 1912. In 1912 he also producec
Louis N. Parker's Drake and in 1913 his biblical play Jose.pt
and his Brethren. In 1914 he produced Mr. Bernard Shaw":
Pygmalion. During the World War he was active in propagand;
work, organizing lectures at His Majesty's theatre and speaking
himself frequently in America during his theatrical tours. Hi
published a volume of Thoughts and Afterthoughts (1913) a IK
other occasional papers. His sudden death, after a comparative!}
slight operation, at the age of 63, was felt as a great loss to th(
contemporary English stage.
See Herbert Beeroohm Tree: some Memories of him, collected b>
Max Beerbohm (1920).
TRENCH, FREDERICK HERBERT (1865- ), British poei
and playwright, was born at Avoncore, co. Cork, Nov. 12 1865
Educated at Haileybury and Keble College, Oxford, he wa:
elected a fellow of All Souls' College, and in 1891, after some yean
spent in travelling, was appointed an examiner in the Board oi
Education. This appointment he gave up in 1908 in order tc
devote himself to literary work. In 1908 he also became directoi
of the Haymarket theatre, London, and during a short tenure o
this position he staged King Lear and Maeterlinck's Blue Bird
During the World War he worked in Florence for the establish
ment of a better understanding between Great Britain and Italy
From his school days he had been a writer of verse, and his first
volume of poems, Deirdre Wedded, appeared in 1901. It was
followed by further poems, notably " Apollo and the Seaman,'
included in New Poems (1907), and Lyrics and Narrative Poem
(1911). Among his later publications were an Ode from Italy in
Time of War (1915); Poems with Fables in Prose (1917); and
a poetic play Napoleon (1918), which was produced in Londoi
by the Stage Society in 1919.
TRENCHARD, SIR HUGH MONTAGUE, BART. (1873-
British air marshal, was born Feb. 3 1873 and joined the array,
in 1893. He served through the S. African War, was danger^
ously wounded, and was promoted brevet major. He was
then for seven years with the W. African Frontier Force andj
during that time took part in three campaigns, receiving the
D.S.O. in 1906. After returning home in 1910 he joined the
Royal Flying Corps and he became assistant commandant a
Upavon in 1912. On the outbreak of war in 1914 he was at
first left in charge of the central depot at Farnborough, but
before the end of the year he was summoned to the front and he
shortly afterwards became head of the military wing of the
air forces under Sir J. French; this appointment he filled will
signal success for nearly three years. He was promoted brevet
TRENCH FEVER TRENCH ORDNANCE
773
lieutenant-colonel and brevet colonel in 1915, and advanced to
the rank of major-general at the beginning of 1917. On the
formation of the Air Ministry at the end of that year he was
brought home to become chief of the staff, but he resigned the
position in the following April; he was however a few weeks
later given command of the " Independent Force," which
carried out extensive raids into German territory during the
closing months of the struggle. He had been made a K.C.B.
in 1918, and on the final distribution of honours for the war he
was given a baronetcy and received a grant of 10,000. He
was gazetted air vice-marshal on the introduction of the new
designations of rank in the air service, and in 1919 he was pro-
moted air marshal and became chief of the air staff.
TRENCH FEVER. Early during the World War, in 1913,
it was noticed that a large number of soldiers in France and
Flanders were falling victim to a disease the nature of which
was not clearly understood. It was an infectious disease be-
cause men were affected who shared the same tents, huts or
billets. It bore some resemblance to rheumatism in that pain
in muscles and bones was a prominent symptom. It was also
rather like influenza except for an absence of nasal catarrh.
The disease at first was given many names. Thus cases
were called " P.U.O.," an army term meaning " pyrexia of
uncertain origin." They were also called " rheumatism " and
"influenza" and "myelitis" and "lumbago." If the cases
were seen at a late date when palpitation and brea,thlessness
had become prominent, they were often called " cardiac neu-
rasthenia " or " disordered action of the heart " (" D.A.H.").
Soon, however, it was felt that these diagnoses were inaccurate
ind a serious attempt was made to study the disease. The
:arliest contributions to its literature were made by Dr. J. W.
McNee, and others who worked with him. Afterwards several
French Fever Committees were formed by the British medical
tuthorities. One of these worked in connexion with the Ameri-
can Red Cross; another, known as the "War Office Trench
7 ever Committee," had a hospital in Hampstead. This
Tcmmittee was presided over by Sir David Bruce; the director
)f its research work was Col. William Byam. Both Com-
nittees infected volunteers and the conclusions reached, though
hey differed on points of detail, were substantially the same.
Trench fever is a louse-borne disease. The lice do not be-
ome infectious at once after feeding on a trench-fever patient;
here is a latent period of some 8-12 days before they are danger-
us to other people. Thereafter the excreta of the lice, rather
ban their bites, are infective. If these infective excreta be
ubbed into a scratch or scarification trench fever develops
i about eight days. The importance of this discovery about
he excreta lies in the fact that persons may contract the con-
ition who have never had lice upon them. The excreta is a
ry powder, easily blown about, and so apt to reach the clothes,
t remains infective for long periods and even when exposed
5 sunlight. Water on the other hand seems to diminish its
ifectivity quickly.
The blood of trench-fever patients is infective to other patients
hen injected into their veins. Thus the parasite circulates in
ic blood. The parasite is also in the louse excreta. It has
ot, however, so far been positively identified, though there is
certain amount of evidence, that it is one of the so-called
ickettsia bodies. In this connexion the names of Dr. G. A.
> rkwright and Prof. A. W. Bacot must be mentioned,
i The disease is protean in its manifestations. A proportion of the
ises begin suddenly with great muscular weakness and exhaustion,
:adache, furred tongue and blood-shot eyes. Other cases come on
adually, the above symptoms increasing daily in intensity. The
: itient feels very ill and usually develops a temperature-rise to
I )2F. or 103 F. Various types of temperature have been described,
i some instances there is but one wave lasting two or three days;
other instances a " saddle-back " curve is shown, the tempera-
re falling slightly and then rising again. Some patients relapse
finitely on the fifth day, others about the eleventh day. Others
ain relapse at irregular intervals for long periods, each relapse
k"ing a " spike " of temperature of short duration.
I In a few cases there is no rise of temperature. Thus three volun-
' ers were infected with the same batch of louse excreta. All of the
ree developed symptoms of trench fever but in one instance the
temperature remained normal. Yet lice, subsequently fed on this
patient, were able to transmit the disease to other volunteers all of
whom developed rises of temperature. (For similar disease-carry-
ing by body-lice see TYPHUS FEVER.)
The skin pains of trench fever are characteristic. They do not
as a rule appear until a few days after the onset. They are of a
boring, gnawing character and may be so violent that the patient
cannot even bear the weight of the bed clothes. Again they may be
very slight or absent.
The diagnosis is easy in early cases but the disease tends to run a
very chronic course. In one case a patient labelled as a " neuras-
thenic " was found to infect lice four years after his initial attack.
A percentage of patients become chronic invalids, others develop
symptoms of functional heart trouble, others have nervous symp-
toms. It is probable that all these patients remain infected. The
most reliable signs on which a diagnosis can be founded jn the
chronic stage are: (i) the patient's history, especially the state of
his health before and after the initial attack; (2) .the nature of his
relapses; (3) the tenderness commonly met with on gently pinching
the skin of the front of the leg (over the tibiae) ; (4) the presence
of heart or nervous complications, e.g. breathlessness on exertion,
pain, palpitation, gross tremor, etc.
The treatment is very unsatisfactory. At present no drug is
known which will end the condition as quinine will end malaria.
Thus it is necessary to attempt to build up the patient's strength
against his infection. He should if possible lead an open-air life,
he should have exercise, good plain food and cheerful surroundings.
Some authorities lay stress on the value of thyroid, gr. 2 daily, in
these cases. Others believe in iron tonics. Recent observations
have suggested that the muscular weakness which follows the
disease prevents the proper opening of the chest in respiration and
so interferes with the suction action of the opening chest on the
great veins. On this account the wearing of an abdominal belt
has been recommended. It causes the patient to breathe with his
chest and so tends to the restoration of thoracic movement. The
disease is very disabling and its marked tendency to relapse makes
it very distressing to the victim, who can never count on his health.
Change of weather and wet weather seem specially to conduce to
relapses. (R. M. Wl.)
TRENCH ORDNANCE. The need of some form of easily trans-
portable weapon for bombarding an enemy's works or his men
from trenches immediately facing them, instead of from a dis-
tant artillery position, has made itself felt throughout the his-
tory of siege warfare. The use, in the trenches, of small mor-
tars (known as " cohorns'," from the Dutch engineer Coehoorn
who designed them) was habitual in the sieges of the i8th cen-
tury, and the great Carnot early in the igth century proposed
their use on a very large scale for the purpose of attacking per-
sonnel protected from direct fire by breastworks. The introduc-
tion of rifled ordnance, and the consequent modifications in siege
methods, led to the disappearance of these cohorns. Neverthe-
less the need of a trench-mortar was felt in both of the two great
sieges of modern times Vicksburg and Port Arthur in which,
before the World War, trench fighting was close and prolonged.
In these cases mortars of wood and hoop-iron, strong enough to
bear the strain of throwing small bombs a short distance, were
improvised by the troops themselves. After the experience of
Port Arthur, however, European designers took up the question,
and several types were worked out, of which three, the Belgian
Aasen, the German official " Military Engineering Committee's "
design, and the Krupp, initiated progress along three different
lines which were followed up in the World War. The first named,
which was used in action even before the World War at the
siege of Adrianople, 1913 was the prototype of the light trench-
mortars; the second, with few important modifications, remained
in service throughout the WorldWar, and represents the adapta-
tion of standard artillery ideas and elements to the new problem,
while the third introduced the principle of the " stick-bomb,"
fired from a small-bore high-pressure cannon. The Aasen, be-
sides opening the series of light trench-mortars, introduced the
principle, opposite to that of the Krupp, of low pressure.
The history of trench-mortars in the World War is a record,
first of a continually increasing demand which the supply au-
thorities in the various belligerent countries could not meet;
then of a period, coinciding with the full development of position-
warfare methods of tactics, in which well-designed weapons with
ample ammunition supply played an increasingly important
part; and lastly of a period in which, under pressure of new
tactical needs, the " trench " mortar strives to become a gun of
774
TRENCH ORDNANCE
" accompaniment." The tactical employment of trench ordnance,
whether in its designed r61e or as accompanying artillery, is dealt
with under ARTILLERY: the present article is concerned with the
weapons themselves.
The German trench-mortars handled not by artillerymen
but by engineers in their capacity as the technicians of the siege
trenches were used with great effect in the attack of certain
of the Liege forts, and a little later at Maubeuge and Antwerp.
In this they were carrying out the special duties for which they
were designed, and at that stage of the war it was not foreseen
that weapons of this class would be required for the equipment
of a trench-front hundreds of miles in length. Consequently
very few were available when the western front became stabilized,
and the demand was made simultaneously from all quarters for
some short-range trench weapon capable of curved fire, by which
alone the covered enemy could be attacked from covered posi-
tions. For the time being, it was impossible for any belligerent
to do more than provide stop-gaps in the form either of mechani-
cal throwers (see BOMBTHROWERS) or small mortars mounted on
wooden beds, which were in fact either artillery shell sawn off at
the neck and bored with a vent or clsecohorn and other mortars
of the smooth-bore era, unearthed from arsenals or museums.
But while the troops made shift with these, inventors and de-
signers were producing experimental models which, when ap-
proved, were brought out in enormous numbers, with little
difficulty from the point of view of manufacture since the designs
were deliberately kept simple so as to be serviceable in the rough-
est conditions.
Setting aside, for the present, direct-fire trench-guns, of which
various types came into use for combating machine-gun cm-
placements, and, later, tanks trench ordnance for curved fire
is classified either according to weight, as light, medium or
heavy, or according to the principle of design, as high-pressure
or low-pressure. The latter basis of classification is taken here;
and it is desirable at once to indicate the specific differences
which mark off trench ordnance from normal artillery weapons,
applying equally to high-pressure and to low-pressure types.
The most important difference is in range. Although by the
end of the World War some remarkable results had been ob-
tained by progressive experiments in the direction of increased
range, the trench-mortar remained essentially a weapon of less
than 2,000 yd. effective range. In the earlier models save a
few the limit was about 500 yd., while many were incapable of
exceeding 250. Even this last range sufficed in some cases, owing
to the short distances separating the opposed front lines, and
during the period of position-warfare most of the work of light
and medium trench-mortars was done at ranges of 400 to 600
yards. The main motive for increasing range was not the desire
to reach a more distant target from the front line, but the desire
to emplace the trench-mortar at such a distance behind one's
own front-line troops that premature explosions specially liable
to occur with improvised ordnance t and ammunition would not
affect them. An almost equally cogent motive was the desire to
avoid drawing the enemy's reprisal-fire, time after time, upon
the same body of friendly infantry. Another motive was the
desirability of withdrawing the trench-mortar itself from the
effects of fire directed upon the front line, and preventing too
close observation of its position by the enemy.
The next point is weight. For use in or near the front trenches
the trench-mortar must be portable, either as a single unit (as
in the case of light mortars) or in parts which severally do not
exceed certain limits fixed by experience, either in point of weight
or in point of dimensions. For the heavier trench-mortars, having
greater range, the limits imposed on those which have to be
taken close up to the front line are somewhat relaxed; indeed,
the very heaviest, used only in very favourable conditions, is de-
signed for a concrete bed and light-railway transport.
A third point is simplicity, or better, in the French phrase,
" rusticity." The trench-mortar is by hypothesis subjected to
the worst conditions of exposure and handling. From birth it
lacks the mechanical finish of standard artillery; it is required
in great numbers at a time when all engineering shops for high-
class ordnance works are fully occupied and take the pick of the
available metal. Then, on service, it is handled in the main by a
hastily trained personnel, not all of whom possess the gunner's
respect for his gun or the mechanic's pride in his machine. More-
over, the medium and heavy models are in most cases taken
down and assembled frequently, and the parts are transported
by hand through winding, muddy trenches, or across broken
country in the dark. Save perhaps a detachable sight (which is
carried by a non-commissioned officer or gunlayer), none of the
customary adjuncts of modern ordnance is admissible.
Lastly, the ammunition, even of rifled trench-mortars, differs
considerably from that of standard artillery. In most cases itsi
design is special to the particular design of mortar, and there is
no intcrchangcability such as that of 6-in. gun and howitzer
ammunition. But in all cases, not being exposed to the bore
pressures which standard artillery ammunition must endure, it
has much thinner walls and a far greater explosive content.
These specific differences will be best realized by comparing a
standard heavy trench-mortar with a heavy howitzer of the
ordinary kind. The trench-mortar here taken is the Batignolle;
24-mm. used by the French, British and Italian armies; the;
howitzer the German 2i-cm., 1910 model, with a somewhat thick-i
walled shell.
Trench-mortar
Howitzer .
Shell
kgm.
89
Weight
of gun
exclu-
sive of
mount-
ing
kgm.
220
2,625
Pro-
pellant
Charge
Sinn.
720
3.200
Burst-
ing
Charge
kgm.
45
%of
Burst-
er to
weight
of
filled
shell
o
/o
56
9'7
Range
in
Metres
1,040
9,100
Here the trench-mortar shows roughly one-fifth the propel-
lant charge and one-ninth the range, but one-twelfth the weight
of gun and six times the shell "efficiency" of the howitzer.
All trench-mortars fire at super-angles; that is, they use eleva-
tions of about 47 for their longest range and highest elevations
up to 75 or more for the shorter ranges. This enables them to be
used from deep and narrow trenches.
The design may now be considered under the three headings of
high-pressure smooth-bore, low-pressure smooth-bore, and rilled.
I. High-Pressure Smooth-Bore Trench- Mortars.
The prototype is the Krupp bomb-gun of 1912. This, and all
the types presently to be described have " stick-bombs." The
stick-bomb is a large-bodied explosive container sometimes spheri-
cal ("football " bomb), as in the case of the Krupp and the British
2-in. T.M., sometimes formed; to overcome air resistance, as in the
Dume'zil types. In either case, attached to the base of the pro-
jectile is a rod which fits closely into the bore of the mortar like
the rod of a rifle-grenade and^ may or may not be fitted with a
gas-check disc at its end. The gun itself is either a solidly forged
small cannon or a long stout tube, trunnioned at its breech end, and