I along the coast westward from Tripoli city to Zuara and south-
ward from Tripoli by 'Aziziya to beyond Gharian. Submarine
cables were laid in 1912 between Syracuse and Tripoli and Ben-
gazi ; several wireless stations were also erected. Shipping is mainly
in Italian hands.

See A Handbook of Libya, a British Admiralty publication (1920),
: and Italian Libya (1920), a British Foreign, Office handbook, with
bibliography; the Rivista Coloniale of Rome, and the Bolletino of
the Italian Geographical Society. (F. R. C.)

TROTSKY, LEV (1877- ), Russian Communist leader, of
Jewish origin, originally named Leiba Bronstein and often
described as Leon Trotsky, was born in 1877, near Elisavet-

, grad, in the province of Kherson, S. Russia. He studied in a

; public school at Odessa and afterwards in the university there.
He soon joined the left wing of the Social-Democratic party,
took part in students' disorders, and was expelled from the
university. In 1898 he was arrested for his activity as a
member of the " League of Workmen of South Russia," and
three years later he was deported to Ust-Kut, on the Lena
river, in Siberia. He arrived at the place of his exile at the
beginning of 1902, but immediately escaped, and made his

| way to Geneva, where he took a prominent part in the work of
the Russian Social-Democratic group. He collaborated in the
hkra, a paper which was founded in 1901 by Lenin, Plekhanov,
Martov and others. A follower of the extreme Marxian doctrine,
and an irreconcilable enemy of the Liberals, Trotsky tried to
create a unified Socialist party in Russia, and he spent his time

. till the revolution of 1905 in constant travels to and from Russia.
At that time he was already well known in Russian revolutionary
circles. The events of the revolution of 1905 found him in Russia,
where he was publishing the paper Borba (" The Struggle ").
He took a leading part in the direction of the revolutionary
movement, and was one of the organizers of the " Soviet of
Workmen of Petrograd "; he became a member of the executive
committee and later on vice-president of that body. He was
arrested on Dec. 5 1905, with other members of .the Soviet, by
order of Count Witte's Government. After a year of solitary
confinement, he was tried and condemned to perpetual deporta-
tion to Siberia. At the beginning of 1907 he arrived at Obdorsk,
on the shore of the Arctic Ocean, but he escaped again, took
residence at Vienna, and became a constant contributor to the



Arbeiferzeitung. In 1907 he was present at the International
Socialist Conference at Stuttgart, and in 1910 at that of Copen-
hagen. In 1910 he attended the Pan-Slavonic Congress at Sofia,
where amid general consternation he delivered a vehement
speech against the union of the Slavonic nations. In 1912 he
was one of the organizers of the secret conference held at Troppau
by the Russian revolutionary organizations abroad.

At the beginning of the World War, Trotsky as a Russian
subject was obliged to leave Vienna, and he established himself
first at Zurich and later in Paris, where he collaborated in the
Russian paper Golos (afterwards Nashe Slow). He strongly
criticized the Socialist parties of Germany and of the Entente
Powers for supporting their Governments in the war and voting
for the war credits. He was one of the organizers of the Zimmer-
wald Conference, but, together with Lenin, he refused to sign
the Zimmerwald manifesto, which he considered to be too
moderate. In Sept. 1916 the publication of Nashe Slovo was
suspended by order of the French Government, in consequence of
a rebellion among the Russian troops at Marseilles, which was
traced to the anti-militarist propaganda of that paper. Trotsky
was arrested and ordered to leave France. Switzerland refused
to receive him, and he was deported to Spain, but he was arrested
again by the Spanish Government almost on the day of his arrival
at Madrid. At the beginning of 1917 he sailed for the United
States and took part in New York City in the publication of the
Russian paper Navy Mir.

After the revolution of March 1917 Trotsky immediately
started for Russia, but was arrested by order of the British
Government and interned in a prisoners' camp at Halifax. He
was released by a special intercession of Milyukov, who was at
that time Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs. He arrived in
Russia in May, and developed the greatest activity in Petrograd
as one of the leading members of the Bolshevist party. He was
one of the organizers of the Bolshevist rising on July 16 and 17,
and was arrested at the beginning of Aug. for " organizing and
participating in armed rebellion," but soon released by order of
Kerensky. On Oct. 8 he was elected president of the Petrograd
Soviet, and after the Oct. revolution he took the portfolio of
Foreign Affairs and later that of War in the Council of the Com-
missaries of the People. He took a leading part in the political
activity of the Soviet Government, representing the extreme
left wing of the Communist party, and, as such, often opposed
the more moderate programme of Lenin. He signed the peace of
Brest Litovsk, and, in spite of his former anti-militarist declara-
tions, became the organizer and the commander-in-chief of the
Red Army. He introduced again an " iron discipline," more
relentless than that practised under the Tsarist regirrie; deserters
and disobedient soldiers were shot; a system of extensive espion-
age kept officers and men in constant terror; mercenary corps of
Letts, Chinese, Kirghizes and Burials were formed for the purpose
of coercing and destroying the Russian elements. Particular
attention was paid to the formation of specially trained de-
tachments of cadets, devoted to the Communist regime and
ready to serve it on every occasion, like the Janissaries of old
Turkey. Trotsky and his friends did not shrink before a plan of
a general militarization of industry. In a speech delivered at a
meeting of the Third Conference of the Soviets in Moscow, he
said: " All artisans will be sent into the works and transferred
from one place to another, according to the indication of the
Government. We will have no pity for the peasants; we will
make labour armies of them, with military discipline and Com-
munists as their chiefs. These armies will go forth among the
peasants to gather corn, meat, and fish that the work of the
workmen may be assured." A Moscow wireless reported that in
another speech (The Times, March 4 1920) he declared that
" The First Army of Labour so far includes 240,000 Red Army
men, 7,000 civilians and employees, 7,000 military horses and
1 56,000 private horses." In a review of the First Army of Labour
he wrote: " The Red Army detachments make a formidable
labour force, certainly more efficient than, for example, those
civilian detachments mobilized for the clearing of snow. The
military detachments have all the advantages of proper organize-



782



TSCHAIKOVSKY TUBERCULOSIS



tion and the precise order of stern discipline. The fundamental
condition of the productivity of Labour Red Army men, and of
workmen in the Soviet economy in general, is the arousing of the
spirit of emulation. The organization of this spirit is the most
important problem of economic reconstruction, and without this
subjective force nothing will help, neither peat, nor coal, nor
petrol, nor the removal of the blockade. It is necessary to take
all measures to foster the feeling of labour conscience, both
in the cooperative institutions and in the individual." At a
congress of the Soviets at Moscow a resolution was passed
on April 4 in favour of his proposal that labour should be or-
ganized on the principle of military conscription and obligatory
work; also that the inspection of labour should be confided to
special inspectors, instead of local Soviets.

Within the Soviet Government organization, as it still held
power in 1921, Trotsky, Dzerjinsky and Bukharin were the
leaders of the extreme left of the Communist party, and, as such,
had repeatedly opposed Lenin when the latter was inclined to
conciliatory measures; but the outside world generally associated
the names of Lenin and Trotsky together as the embodiments
of Russian Bolshevist rule. (P. Vi.)

TSCHAIKOVSKY, NICHOLAS VASILIEVICH (1850- ),
Russian revolutionary politician, was born in 1850, at Viatka.
He spent the first part of his life on his mother's estate, and
studied at a public school at Viatka and later on in St. Petersburg.
In 1868 he entered the St. Petersburg University and got his
degree in chemistry in 1872. He took part in the " Narodniki "
(populist) movement, and became one of its leaders, working
for the creation of a system of societies for self-education. These
societies organized lectures and provided their members with
cheap and well-selected books. They had a considerable in-
fluence on the moral and political development of a whole genera-
tion of the Russian " intelligentsia."

But under the political regime of Russia in the 'seventies no
public body or society could act freely if its activity was not
fully approved by the Government. Every kind of repression
was used against the promoters of the " narodniki " movement;
and Tschaikovsky was twice arrested. Under these conditions
the new party soon lost its educational character and became
a revolutionary and terrorist association. Tschaikovsky did
not approve of this new tendency and joined the social-religious
group, which received the name of " God-men " because its
members tried to find in themselves a reflection of God.

In 1874 Tschaikovsky left Russia, and a year later he went
to the United States with a small party of men and women who
shared his political views and religious feelings. They founded
a communistic settlement at " Cedar Vale," near Wichita, in
the state of Kansas, and tried to work out their new religious
and social teaching. The experiment proved a failure. After
two years of hard experience, Tschaikovsky and his friends were
obliged to recognize that mankind was not yet ready for the
communistic life which they believed to be an imminent develop-
ment of the future. They regarded communistic life as senseless
without a constant feeling of the presence of God in the case
of each member of the community, and this essential condition
could not be achieved. Therefore they returned to the " old
world of antagonism." The awakening was especially hard for
Tschaikovsky, who not only found it necessary to reconstruct
his conception of the world, but had a family to keep and no
means of livelihood. He worked for some time as an ordinary
workman in a shipbuilding yard and in a sugar factory near
Philadelphia. His health broke down and with his family he
joined the religious community of the Shakers, where he re-
mained for a year.

In 1879 he returned to Europe, and in 1880 took up his resi-
dence in England, renewing his active participation in the Rus-
sian revolutionary organizations abroad; he was a member of the
" Red Cross of the Narodnaia Volia," and organized the supply
of revolutionary literature to Russia. During the first Russian
revolution of 1903-6 he made a tour of America, lecturing on the
subject and collecting funds for the struggle against the Imperial
regime. In 1907 he returned to Russia. There he was arrested on



a charge of conspiracy against the Government and spent ir
months in the St. Peter and St. Paul Fortress at St. Petersburg.
He was released on bail, 5,000 having been collected by his
friends, chiefly in England and America. In 1910 he was
brought to trial and discharged for lack of proof. He remained
in Russia and took a great interest in the work of cooperative
organizations.

During the World War he was very active under the flag of
the Russian Red Cross, supplying food'to the population of the
fighting area. After the revolution of 1917, he was elected mem-
ber of the Council of Soldiers, Workmen and Peasants, formed
at Petrograd, where he used his influence to fight the Bolshevist
propaganda. He was also elected member of the Constituent
Assembly. After the Bolshevist revolution, as a member of the
" Committee for the Salvation of the Motherland and of the
Revolution," and of the " Committee for the Defence of the
Constituent Assembly," he helped to organize the struggle
against the Bolshevists.

In 1918 he was one of the founders of the "Union of the
reconstruction of Russia," an anti-Bolshevist organization of
the left parties of Moscow. He was also elected member of the
Ufa Directorate. On his way to Siberia, he came to Viatka,
where he took the lead in an insurrection against the Bolshevists
and entered into negotiations with the Allied force at Archangel.
He took part in the coup d'etat of Aug. 2 at Archangel and be-
came president of the Supreme Administrative Board of the
North Region. After the break-up of a conspiracy of monarchist
officers, he organized the Provisional Government of the North
Region under his own leadership. Tschaikovsky was sent by his
Government to Paris, where he represented the interests of the
North Region before the Peace Conference. He was a member
of the " Russian Political Delegation " in Paris till its dissolution
in Feb. 1921. (P. Vi.)

TUBERCULOSIS (see 27.354*). Since the bacillus tuberculosis
was discovered by Koch in 1882, the various forms of disease
caused by its invasion have been in the forefront of medical
research. The disease is known to have existed amongst the
earliest civilizations. Bony tuberculous lesions have been de-
scribed in Egyptian mummies, and in the Nubian collection
of bones in the Royal College of Surgeons, London, are two
specimens, respectively of the dates of about 3,000 and 2,000
B.C., presenting all the characteristics of tuberculous disease
of the spine. Tuberculous disease of the lungs is known to
have existed in very early times. The old Greek Hippocrates
(born 460 B.C.) first applied the term " phthisis," and a descrip-
tion of its clinical manifestations may be found in his writings
and those of Celsus, Aretaeus and Galen. Before the discovery
of the bacillus its effects in different parts of the body were
classified as distinct diseases, receiving different names:
" consumption " or phthisis for pulmonary tuberculosis, struma
or scrofula for bone or gland tuberculosis, lupus for tuberculosis
of the skin, and tabes mesenterica of the intestinal glands.

Pathology. Affected tissues invaded by the tubercle bacillus
undergo typical changes, become inflamed, break down and
perish. By the irritation which the bacilli excite, epitheloid
cells are proliferated from the normal cells of the tissues, form-
ing a tubercle, in which is usually present a " giant " cell sur-
rounded by smaller epitheloid cells encompassed by a zone of
leucocytes. Scattered amongst these cells tubercle bacilli may
be found. Later the tubercles undergo degenerative changes
(caseation) proceeding further to abscess formation. Repair may
take place by cicatricial formation of fibrous tissue, these fibrous
nodules sometimes undergoing calcareous degeneration. Bayle,
in the latter part of the i8th century, first described' the tuber-
cular nodule, and its distributions in other organs than the lungs.

One organ or part of the patient attacked is generally the seat
of these tubercular nodules, some of which may become con-
fluent, but the" disease may take the form of an acute specific
fever, clinically somewhat resembling typhoid fever, with wide-
spread dissemination of the infection. In this form the disease
is so severe and rapid, that many of the tubercles have not
time to get beyond the initial stages of their development



* These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.



TUBERCULOSIS



783



before death occurs. Such a manifestation is termed acute
miliary tuberculosis. The intra-cellular or extra-cellular toxins
produced by the tubercle bacillus in the course of its develop-
ment are the cause of many of the pathological features associ-
ated with the disease the bacillus produces.

The tubercle bacillus is a minute rod-like, often slightly curved,
organism, i-SM ~ 3'SM in length and 0-3/1 in breadth. It may
stain uniformly or present a beaded appearance, the unstained
beads being regarded by Koch as spores. Metchnikoff ad-
vanced the view that the bacillus as ordinarily met with is but
a stage in the developmental cycle of a filamentous fungus. The
: organism is regarded by many as a member of the streptothrix
group belonging to the hyphomycetes or mould fungi. It
stains with difficulty but retains its stain, once received, with
remarkable tenacity, resisting decolorization by strong acids
and hence called acid-fast.

Exposed to direct sunlight or ultra-violet radiation it is
rapidly slain but is of retentive vitality under certain conditions.
Dr. Stenhouse Williams has shown that it remains viable and
virulent in cow-dung on pasture land for at least five months,
and in dung stored in the dark for twelve months, a discovery
of great importance and significance in veterinary practice. It
retains its virulence and capacity for development for six weeks
or longer in decomposing sputum and for six months in dried
sputum. The thermal death point varies between 65C. and
ooC. and Swithinbank has shown that it will survive a tempera-
ture of i86C. for 42 days.

Certain antiseptics are fatal to the tubercle bacillus, 5%
carbolic acid will slay it in less than a minute, and endeavours
have been made to destroy the organism in living tissues by
the administration of drugs, but hitherto without demonstrable
success. Methylene-blue and certain copper salts injected into
guinea-pigs infected with tuberculosis, can be demonstrated
in their tubercle, bacilli, and a fascinating, but hitherto unfruit-
ful line of chemotherapeutic research has thus been opened up,
aiming at the destruction of the tubercle bacilli while parasitic
in their host.

The tubercle bacillus is widely parasitic through the animal
world, but different animals show widely varying degrees of
susceptibility. Generally, domesticated animals are more liable
to infection than wild, and captive wild animals than those
in their natural state. Domestic cattle are particularly prone.
Much controversy has arisen as to the communicability of
tuberculosis from animals to man. After Koch had thrown
doubt on its probability at the British Congress on Tubercu-
losis in 1901, the British Government appointed a Royal Com-
mission to enquire into the relationship of human and animal
tuberculosis. In the second interim report of the Commission,
issued in 1907, the conclusions arrived at were: " That there
seems to be no valid reason for doubting the opinion, never
seriously doubted before 1901, that human and bovine bacilli
belong to the same family. On this view, the answer to the
question Can the bovine bacillus affect man? is obviously
in the affirmative. The same answer must also be given to
; those who hold the theory that human and bovine tubercle
: bacilli are different in kind, since the ' bovine kind ' are readily
to be found as the causal agents of many fatal cases of human
1 tuberculosis." In later years the investigation has been further
pursued. Pulmonary tuberculosis is rarely bovine in origin,
: md non-pulmonary tuberculosis does not appear to be so
! commonly bovine as previously supposed, the latest researches
! (up to 1921) in England going to show that probably approxi-
mately some 30% of cases of non-pulmonary tuberculosis are
af bovine and 70% of human origin. While cows are the
:ommonest domesticated animals infected, tuberculosis occurs
pigs, less commonly in dogs, cats, and but rarely in horses
ind sheep. Tuberculosis in rats has been demonstrated. In
'domestic fowls another variety of the tubercle bacillus, the
ivian, is found. Even reptiles, fishes and invertebrate creatures
such as worms may be infected. While bovine bacilli are
:apable of infecting the human subject, especially in childhood,
ivian bacilli are of little human pathogenic significance.



In the evolution of pulmonary tuberculosis, human or, very
rarely, bovine bacilli may be detected in the sputum, and usually
are demonstrable in tuberculous pus derived from any focus.
The bacilli may also sometimes be found in the blood or stools
of infected subjects.

Channels of Infection. Congenital origin, though rare, has been
proved to exist. By Cobbett it has been regarded as commoner
than usually supposed. Tubercle may be introduced by direct inocu-
lation. Much more commonly the infection is produced by inhala-
tion of dried sputum as dust into the lungs, or by the ingestion of
tuberculous material into the alimentary canal. Cornet has esti-
mated that as many as 7,200,000,000 bacilli may be expectorated
by a consumptive patient in the course of a day, and it requires
little consideration to show what a ready means is thus presented of
infection. Recognition of this fact is of importance in prophylaxis.
The vehicle of infection by ingestion is commonly tuberculous milk
or butter. The portal of entry, carious teeth, tonsils or some por-
tion of the intestine. Fatal bovine infection, though rare in adults,
is not uncommon in children. Dr. Cobbett has calculated that
about one-third of all fatal cases of tuberculosis in children under
five is attributable to a bovine source, a matter of great importance
to farming interests and preventive medicine. There is reason to
believe that the relative incidence of bovine or human infection
may_vary according to locality. Thus in Scotland, bovine infec-
tion is probably relatively commoner than in England.

Contagiousness of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is not contagious
in the sense that such diseases as measles and other of the exanthe-
mata are. The danger of infection of healthy subjects where reason-
able precautions are taken, as in institutions for the tuberculous,
is extremely _remote. But under conditions due to overcrowding,
bad hygiene, imperfect nutrition, when lowered resistance is encount-
ered, where massive doses of bacilli are absorbed and contact is
intimate and prolonged, the danger of infection is very real. The
vexed question of marital or conjugal tuberculosis has been much
discussed of late and should not be neglected.

Predisposing Causes of Infection. In discussing infection, atten-
tion should be drawn to the " soil " of the patient as well as to the
" seed " sown. There is variation in both individual and racial
susceptibility. Thus the Irish are said to be relatively susceptible,
the Jews immune. " It has been learned of late years that the
number of individuals who can be shown by radiography, tuberculin
tests, and autopsy findings to have some focus of tuberculosis is
enormously in excess of those who are usually classed as tubercu-
lous " (Bushnell). Tuberculous infection amongst civilized com-
munities is well-nigh universal. The tubercle bacillus may remain
latent in the individual for indefinite periods, may rapidly and in
varying degrees give rise to local lesions or generalized dissemina-
tion. _ Its innocuousness depends both on the good health of the
individual attacked, his immunity inherited or acquired, and the
absence of conditions calculated to break down that immunity.
Amongst the more important factors likely to facilitate morbid
infection are heredity, a constitutional liability to the disease, gen-
eral debility due to various circumstances ; poverty and its associated
conditions; overcrowding, insanitary surroundings, bad hygiene,
insufficient or unsuitable food, exposure, trauma, alcoholic excess,
insanity, syphilis and other diseases; unfavourable climatic influ-
ences, occupations, etc. Dr. Browning has shown that the common
age-period of phthisis may vary in different localities. Thus, it is
earlier in the Shetland Is. than in London. The age of maximum
mortality appears to be increasing. In the middle of the igth cen-
tury it was 25 to 35 years; in 1921 it was 45 to 55 in males, 35 to
45 in females.

Control and Eradication of Tuberculosis. With the discovery of
the causal factor of this disease and an ever-extending acquaint-
ance with the conditions favouring its pathogenicity, it became
possible to initiate, investigate and undertake scientific methods
for its control and eradication. The problem, however, is of
infinite complexity. Up to 1921, no certain method of im-
munization against infection had actually been discovered, and
no specific treatment comparable to that employed in dealing
with syphilis had been devised. Till the uninfected popula-