perity of the country.

In May 1910 ratifications were exchanged of the boundary
treaty concluded in Oct. 1909 between Uruguay and 'Brazil;
this settled several minor but long-pending questions in a sat-
isfactory manner. A subsequent treaty of May 7 1913, since
carried out, provided for delimiting and marking the bound-
ary. Brazil ceded to Uruguay " the waters and navigation "
of Lake Mirim and the Yaguaron river, and the contracting
parties agreed not to fortify their new frontiers.

Uruguay continued to prosper under her next president,
Feliciano Vieira (1915-9), who surrounded himself with able
advisers of the young and progressive group which continued to
dominate Uruguayan affairs. Most of them had Studied or
travelled abroad. Baltasar Brum, Vieira's successor in the
presidency, had been Minister of Foreign Affairs in the latter
part of Vieira's administration, when the growing pro-Allied
sympathies of Uruguay were crystallized by the entry of the
United States into the World War.

The Uruguayan Government, which had been pro-Ally, did
not hesitate to express its sympathy with the action of the
United States in declaring war, acting on the principle that
" any act perpetrated against one of the countries of America
in violation of the precepts of international kw as universally
recognized shall constitute an offence against all of them and
consequently cause a common reaction in all," a statement
largely inspired by dislike of Germany's submarine policy. On
June 19 1917 President Vieira issued a proclamation stating that
Uruguay would not regard as subject to the restrictions applicable
to a belligerent any American nation which, in defence of its
own rights, finds itself at war with nations of other continents.
A month later a U.S. squadron under Adml. Caperton visited
Montevideo and was received with great popular enthusiasm
and pro-Ally demonstrations; while the Luxburg disclosures
and the Argentine Congress's vote in Sept. (see ARGENTINA)
for a rupture of diplomatic relations with Germany further
stirred Uruguay. Finally, on Oct. 6 1917 President Vieira for-
mally broke diplomatic relations with Germany, having been
authorized to do so by a Congressional vote of 74 to 23, and on
Oct. 15 a presidential decree stated that the rules of neutrality
would not be applied to the Entente Allies. July 4 and 14 were
proclaimed national holidays, in recognition of the national
holidays in the United States and in France, and although no
military or naval aid was sent to the Allies, Uruguay's sympa-
thies continued with them until the end of the war. On
Nov. 9 1917 the eight German merchant vessels in Montevideo
harbour were seized by the Uruguayan Government and were
chartered by the U.S. Emergency Fleet Corp. A credit of 15,-
000,000 pesos (approximately 3,000,000 at normal exchange)
was advanced to England by the Uruguayan Government at 5 %,
to be used for the purchase of supplies in Uruguay, and a visiting
British warship was most cordially welcomed. No less than
five new branches of foreign banks were opened at Montevideo
between 1915 and 1921, one of them from the United States and
one from Canada. Uruguayan trade with the United States
greatly increased during this period.

For some time Battle y Ordonez and his followers had been
urging a new constitution to replace that promulgated on July
18 1830, and in 1916 a Constitutional Convention met to discuss
one which had largely been composed and influenced by Battle
himself. The convention concluded its task in Oct. 1917, and
the new constitution came into effect March i 1919. The most
important change in it was the definite separation of Church and
State, making all religions free. The Roman Catholic Church,
though no longer recognized as the state religion, was given
control of such places of worship as had been already wholly or
partly constructed by funds from the national treasury. Mem-
bers of the clergy may be chosen as representatives or senators.
Decentralization of the formerly strongly centralized Federal
Government was brought about by the installation of popularly



elected assemblies and autonomous councils of administration
to regulate the local affairs of the departments, with control over
the municipalities. The chief-of-police in each department,
however, is paid by the national treasury and is directly subor-
dinate to the president of the republic, who appoints and removes
him. For the first time in the history of American constitutions
the executive power is divided. It is shared between the presi-
dent (elected by direct vote for four years) and an administra-
tive board composed of nine members elected by a popular vote
for a six-year term, one-third of its members retiring every two
years. The president cooperates with this board, which directs
the affairs of the departments of Finance, Public Instruction
and Public Works, the president controlling those of the Interior,
Foreign Relations, War and Marine. Minority representation is
protected by a system of plural voting, and for the first time in
S. American constitutions the adoption of woman suffrage is
sanctioned for national or local elections, but a two-thirds
majority of all the members in each chamber of the Legislature
is required for its adoption. The General Assembly, composed of
two Houses, is charged with the interpretation of the constitution,
and also elects the justices of the Supreme Court. Perhaps the
fact that Uruguay spends more money on education than on her
combined army and navy (in 1915 there was one school in
Uruguay for every 900 inhabitants, 63 % of the children of school
age attending school), best illustrates her prospects of progress
under this new and liberal constitution.

Uruguay's youngest president, Baltasar Brum, took office on
March i 1919, shortly after travelling, while Minister of Foreign
Affairs, in the United States and throughout S. America. He
had developed a strongly pro-Ally and pan-American policy
while Minister of Foreign Affairs, and he surrounded himself
with an able and progressive cabinet. The visit of Mr. Bain-
bridge Colby, U.S. Secretary of State, to Montevideo in Dec.
1920, to return President Brum's visit to the United States two
years before, caused renewed expressions of pan-American
solidarity, which were intensified by the continued numbers of
young men and women sent to the United States to study and
the reduction of the average passenger voyage from New York
to Montevideo from 24 to 17 days. Uruguay ratified the Peace
of Versailles in 1919, and also concluded obligatory arbitration
treaties with Great Britain and Italy in that year.

Economics. The public debt of Uruguay was $129,774,119 in
1900 and $154,733,367 in 1916, which shows a very small relative
increase. Agricultural development favoured the increase of small
holdings and of peasant proprietors. In 1908 there were 43,874
rural holdings and in 1916 57,974. In 1916 there were 11,472,852
sheep, 7,802,442 meat cattle, 567,154 horses, 303,958 swine, 16,663
mules and asses, and 12,218 goats. The accompanying table, given
in U.S. dollars, contains the latest available statistics of foreign
commerce :

Imports into, and Exports from, Uruguay.



From or to


Imports


Exports


1907


1917


1907


1917


United States
Great Britain
(United
Kingdom)
Argentina .
Brazil .
France


$3-556,336

11,965,605
2,650,335
1,813,018
4,057,487


$11,009,259

6,054,393
8,421,124
6,677,020
1,429,274


$2,415,632

3-089,343
8,419,392

6,346,753
7,961,725


$26,218,746

19,358,161
12,376,146
1,299,622
16,180,680



The trade with Spain was not important. In 1907 Germany stood
second among the countries supplying Uruguay's imports. In 1917
she only supplied Uruguay with $106,733 worth of merchandise.

(C. L. C.)

UTAH (see 27.813). The pop. of Utah in 1920 was 449,396,
an increase over 1910 of 76,045 or 20-4%, a rate of increase
5-5% greater than that of the United States as a whole. The
density of pop. increased from 4-5 persons per sq. m. in 1910
to 5-5 in 1920. The urban pop. increased from 46-3% in 1910
to 48% in 1920.

Before 1891 the two political organizations in the state were
known as People's party and Liberal party, closely correspond-
ing to Mormon and anti-Mormon. These old names ceased to
be used in the decade 1910-20; there was an evident desire to






904



UTAH



forget the old feuds between Mormons and non-Mormons who
alike composed the Republican and Democratic parties, and
political divisions were no longer on religious lines. Utah has
been Republican since its admission as a state in 1896, excepting
in 1896, when the electoral vote was cast for Bryan, and in 1916,
when the presidential vote was for Wilson and a Democratic
governor and other state officers were elected.

Recent governors have been William Spry (Republican),
1909-17; Simon Bamberger (Democrat), 1917-21; Charles R.
Mabey (Republican), 1921- . Bamberger, the only governor of
Utah not connected with the Mormon Church, was born in Ger-
many of Jewish parents. Joseph Fielding Smith, president of
the Church of Latter Day Saints from 1901, died in Nov. 1918.
He was a nephew of Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormon
Church. His successor was Heber J. Grant.

The state's most important irrigation enterprise, the Straw-
berry Project, begun in 1906, was practically completed in 1918.
By means of a tunnel 4 m. long through the Wasatch Mts.,
water is brought from a drainage basin on the E. side of the
mountains into the Utah valley, 45 m. away. The reservoir
in Strawberry valley, covering 8,100 ac., 7,600 ft. above sea-
level, has a capacity of 280,000 ac. ft., of which only 75,000
are to be used annually until the project is enlarged. Use was
begun Sept. -1913, and in 1920 70,000 ac. were irrigated from it.
The state's irrigated acreage in 1909 was 458, 273; in 1919 722,-
772; and works existed capable of irrigating 944,727 acres. Two
canyons, Brice's and Little Zion, are reserved as national parks.

In Aug. 1909 Earl Douglass, a geologist, while conducting an
expedition sent out by the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh, dis-
covered in Uinta county the first complete skeleton of a dinosaur.
Excavations for its removal revealed a deposit, the most exten-
sive yet found, of fossil remains of extinct animals. The spot,
embracing 80 ac., was set aside in 1915 by the U.S. Government
and named Dinosaur National Monument.

Amendments to Constitution. Section 3 of Article 10 was amended
Nov. 8 1910 to provide that funds from the state tax for high
schools be apportioned among cities and school districts according
to attendance at high schools, so long as the schools are maintained
at a standard fixed by the state Board of Education. Section 4 of
Article 13 was amended to provide that after Jan. I 1919 metal-
liferous mines and mining claims be assessed at $5 per ac. and in
addition thereto at a value based on some multiple or submultiple of
net annual proceeds. All other mines or mining claims and other
valuable mineral deposits, including coal or hydrocarbons, are
assessed at full value, as are also machinery and surface improve-
ments. Article 22, Miscellaneous, was amended by adding Section 3
prohibiting after Jan. I 1919 the manufacture and sale of intoxicating
liquor containing in excess of one-half of I % of alcohol. Amendment
to Section 7, Article 13, approved by referendum Nov. 1920, pro-
vided for a minimum appropriation for school purposes from state
funds, >f $25 for each child of school age. Amendment to Section 5,
Article 16, gave the Legislature power to make recovery in fatal
cases definite, thereby eliminating long suits, enabling dependents to
obtain definite amounts without expense, and protecting them
against settlements at less than the law provides.

Government. By an Act of the Legislature, passed in 191 1 to take
effect in 1912, government by a board of five commissioners was made
mandatory in all cities of the 1st class; and in cities of the 2nd class
by a board of three commissioners; cities of the 3rd class remained
under mayor and councilmen. An Act of 1919 authorized levying of
taxes for libraries and gymnasiums in cities of the 3rd class and in
unincorporated towns.

Education. In igig'Utah enacted much legislation extending the
educational work of the state. Among things provided for were the
establishment of standard high schools in voting precincts having
1,200 or more school population; vocational education; part-time
schools for those excused for necessary employment; health educa-
tion supervisors and school nurses; care for physical welfare of chil-
dren of pre-school age; free dispensaries and clinics; Americanization
by requiring persons not speaking English to attend evening schools;
county public libraries; libraries and gymnasiums in cities of the
3rd class and unincorporated towns. By 1920 legal provisions had
been made for public schooling, including kindergartens, for all
children from 4 to 18 years old, and for supervision of the activities
of all children of school age for 12 months in the year. Class-room
instruction was not extended over the usual vacation periods, but
each student was to enroll for " out-of-school " activities in which
he and his parents might be directly interested. Credit for such work
systematically done was to be given on the school records. Improve-
ment of equipment and teaching staff resulted from consolidation of
many rural schools. While in 1909 685 public schools were reported



and in 1920 only 683, increase of enrolled pupils from 84,804 to
117,406 reflected the increased provision for public education. The
average attendance in 1920 was 97,008. The total expenditures of
1919-20 were $8,353,133. The total number of teachers in 1909
was 2,255 (1,645 women) and in 1920 3,739 (2,824 women). The
average salary of high-school principals in Salt Lake City in 1920
was $3,750; the lowest salary paid any teachers in the rural schools
was $502. The Branch Normal School at Cedar City, formerly
connected with the university of Utah, was transferred to the
supervision of the Agricultural College. There were in 1920 46 tax-
supported libraries, 22 of the buildings being Carnegie gifts.

Agriculture. The number of farms in Utah in 11920 was 25,662,
an increase of 18-4 % over 1909. The farm acreage was 5,050,410, of
which 1,715,380 ac. or 34% were improved. The value of lands and
buildings in 1920 was $243,751.758; of implements and machinery
$13,514,787; of live stock $54,008,183: showing respectively an
increase over 1910 of 107-4%; 2O2 '5% and 87-6%. The average
value of land and buildings per farm was in 1920 9,499 as compared
with $5,423 in IQIO. Of all farms operated by owners in 1920, 47 (> ",,
were mortgaged as compared with 28-9% in 1910. Of the 25,248
white farmers, 21,276 were native and 3,972 foreign-born. Of na-
tive white farmers 18,683 were owners, 268 managers, and 2,320 ten-
ants. Of foreign-born white farmers, 3,652 were owners, 25 mana-
gers, and 295 tenants. The 414 coloured farmers comprised 239
owners, 3 managers, and 172 tenants. There were 627 women
farmers, including 609 owners, I manager and 17 tenants.

Crops. The total value of crops in 1919 was $58,067,067, an
increase of 219% over 1910. In order of value the chief crops were
hay and forage; cereals; sugar beets; potatoes and other vegetables;
fruits and nuts; clover and alfalfa seed. As compared with that of
1909 the acreage of oats, 61,825, showed 23-5% decrease; wheat
268,457, increase of 50-5%; barley, 15,938, decrease of 40-4%. The
average yield of oats per ac. in 1919 was 27-9 bus.; of wheat 15-3 bus.;
barley 22-9 bus. The total acreage of hay and forage in 1919 was
549,967 with a total production of 1,031,609 tons. There were 12,047
ac. in potatoes, a decrease of 15.2% as compared with 1909; the
average yield per ac. was 136-8 bus. as against 169-5 > n I 99- The
production of strawberries in 1919 was 484,792 qt.; raspberries
363,801 qt. ; apples 759,696 bus. ; peaches 883,950 bus. ; cherries 123,-
477 bus. The acreage of sugar beets in 1919 was 93,359 as compared
with 27,442 in 1909, an increase of 240 per cent. In beet production
(1,338,000 tons) Utah ranked next to Colorado in 1920. In that year
there were sugar factories in 1 8 towns, and their product totalled
153,200 tons. The value of the sugar production in 1920 was ap-
proximately $30,000,000.

Live Slock. -On Jan. I 1920 the number of beef cattle was 397,563;
dairy cattle 108,015; value of beef cattle $16,806,429; dairy cattle
$5,821,441. The number of horses was 125,471 valued at $9,642,418;
of sheep 1,691,795 valued at $18,881,529; of goats 29,512 valued at
$253,100; of swine 99,361 valued at $1,551,880.

Industries. Important industries in 1920 were meat-packing;
creameries and condenseries; canneries; flour and cereals; candy;
salt; metal and sheet iron; cement and lime. The following table,
from the U.S. census of 1920, gives a comparative summary of
manufactures for 1919 and 1909:





1919


1909


Number of establishments
Wage-earners ....
Capital . _ .
Cost of materials
Value of products .


1,160
18,868
$140,785,034
$110,154,349
$156,933.071


749
11,78!

$52,626,640
$41,265,661
$61,989,277



Mining. The production of gold in Utah has been decreasing
steadily since 1908. In 1920 the value was $1,949,000. More than
half the gold of 1920 was from the Bingham district, about 30%
from the Tintic district, and the rest from Park City and other
camps. Most of the gold was produced from silicious, copper, and
lead ores treated at smelting plants. The largest producers of gold
were the Utah Copper Co., U.S. Mining Co., Deer Trail, Chief
Consolidated, Utah Consolidated, and Grand Central mines. The
value of silver output in 1908 was $4,479, 209 and in 1920 $12,664,000,
the latter a slight decrease from 1919. The Chief Cpnsolidated Mine
at Eureka continued to be the largest producer of silver in the state,
and the Tintic Standard followed closely. Althpugh production of
copper in 1920 was somewhat less than in 1919, it was considerably
greater than a decade before. In 1908 the copper output was valued I
at $12,851,377 and in 1920 $19,991,000. The Utah Copper Co. at
Bingham produced nearly 9,000,000 Ib. a month throughout the year.
In 1908 lead mined in Utah was valued at $3,728,655; in 1919
$6,562.940; in 1920 $10,939,000. The largest producers of lead were
the Utah Apex, U.S. Mining Co., Tintic Standard, Chief Con-
solidated, Utah Consolidated, Silver King Coalition, Daily Judge,
Ophir Hill, and Eagle and Blue mines. The largest increases were
those of Chief Comsolidated and Tintic Standard in the Tintic dis-
trict. The zinc product increased from $68,646 in 1908 to $323,465
in 1919 and $487,000 in 1920. In 1908 the production of coal was
1,846,792 tons; in 1918 the output of Carbon county alone was
4,607,192 tons; and in 1920 the total state production was 6,125,000
tons. (G. E. F.)



VACCINE THERAPY



905



VACCINE THERAPY. Since the discoveries of Pasteur it
has become recognized that a very large number of the
diseases from which human beings suffer are due to infec-
tion of the tissues by living micro-organisms, most of which
belong to the simpler forms of plant life.

Immunity from such infections may be natural or may be
acquired. By natural immunity we understand a natural re-
sistance to infection by certain micro-organisms which are known
to have pathogenic properties for other species of animals. It
is known, for instance, that microbes which produce a rapidly
fatal disease in one kind of animal are quite innocuous when
introduced even in enormous numbers into another kind.

As an example of an acquired immunity may be taken the
immunity conferred as a rule for a lifetime by an attack of
measles or chicken-pox. The individual who has once overcome
such an infection is usually immune from a further attack, even
though exposed to infection.

It is this fact which led Jenner to try to confer immunity
against smallpox by producing a modified mild " attack " by
vaccination with calf lymph. It is now admitted that such
vaccination does confer immunity, and that even should in-
fection occur the disease runs a mild course.

Since the discovery of bacteria as causative agents of disease,
much study has been devoted to the part played by the cells and
fluids of the tissues in recovering from bacterial infections.
Evidence has been sought for response on the part of the body
to the bacterial invasion. It is to Metchnikoff that we owe the
knowledge that the white blood corpuscles and other cells of the
body react to the introduction of bacteria into the tissues.'
Enormous numbers of these cells congregate at the site of inva-
sion and engulf the microbes (phagocytosis). As Sir John Burdon
Sanderson aptly put it, the white blood corpuscles act as the
policemen of the body.

It was soon learnt, however, that this is not the only way in
which the body reacts to microbic infection. Buchner was able
to show that the tissue fluids and the blood serum in particular
acquire new properties as a result of bacterial infection, properties
which render them highly injurious to the invading microbes.
It was shown, for instance, that if actively mobile typhoid
bacilli are brought into contact with the blood serum of a normal
individual the bacilli are but little affected by the serum. On the
contrary, if the bacilli are brought into contact with the serum of
an individual convalescent from typhoid fever their mobility
ceases, they are massed into clumps (agglutination) and finally
killed (bactericidal action) and dissolved (bacteriolytic action).
Sir Almroth Wright was able to demonstrate that a further
property is acquired by the serum, namely an increased power
to render the bacteria more readily ingestible by the phagocytic
cells (opsonic action). Exactly how and where these new proper-
ties are acquired is not yet known, but one of the most striking
facts emerging from the study of these reactions is that they are
directed against the particular micro-organism which has in-
vaded the tissues; the reactions are said to be specific. Thus the
! blood serum of a patient convalescent from typhoid fever, which
is strongly bactericidal for the typhoid bacillus, behaves like a
normal serum when brought into contact with any other kind of
bacteria. Similarly, while an attack of typhoid fever confers
i immunity against a second infection by the typhoid bacillus, it
confers no immunity from infection by other bacteria, even those
so closely related as the para-typhoid bacilli.

It must be admitted that recent work goes to confirm the

opinion that there is a concomitant non-specific response common

to the reaction against all microbic infections, but this does not

detract from the importance of recognizing the highly specific

| nature of these immunity reactions.

A very important step forward was taken when it was demon-

' strated that the body responds to the introduction into the

tissues of dead bacteria in the same way as it does when living



bacteria invade the tissues, for this made possible artificial
immunization. To attempt to confer immunity against any
microbic disease by the introduction of very small numbers of
even attenuated living bacteria is fraught with manifest dangers,
for the bacteria are capable of multiplication in the tissues and
are no longer under control. To attempt to confer immunity
against disease by the introduction of dead microbes into the
tissues is a different matter, for the dosage can be regulated and
the bacteria cannot multiply in the tissues.

Thus it was that Sir Almroth Wright proposed to confer im-
munity from typhoid infection by inoculation into the healthy
tissues of a standardized suspension of dead typhoid bacilli in
physiological salt solution (typhoid vaccine). The immense
benefit derived from such inoculations was fully demonstrated
during the World War 1914-8. Wright's studies in immunization
had demonstrated that it was possible to confer immunity
against microbic infections by the inoculation of bacterial vac-
cines into healthy individuals. It seemed at first that nothing
but harm could result from the inoculation of such vaccines once
the tissues had become infected. It appeared, indeed, as if to do
so were merely to add more poison to a system already being
poisoned. Such, however, is not the case. Pasteur was the first
to show, in connexion with rabies, that beneficial results could
be obtained by inoculating vaccine during the incubation period