he uses the " spectral palette " of the impressionists, and works
in a high key. He early devoted himself to the study of subtle
gradations and variations in colour, and adopted a pointillist
technique, afterwards modified into a broader method of han-
dling, with more emphasis on design. His work is almost entirely
English landscape, notable recent examples being " Coldharbour,
Teatime " and " Crockhurst Lane, Coldharbour." He became
a member of the New English Art Club, was a member of the
Camden Town Group, and was the principal founder of the
Monarro Group. He became a naturalized British subject in
1916. He is represented in the Tate Gallery, and in the art
galleries of Leeds and Manchester.
PISTOL (see 21.654). During recent years the automatic
pistol has been gradually perfected and adapted to replace the
revolver as a military side arm, despite the fact that there are
many who maintain that the revolver is the more dependable
weapon. The automatic pistol, like all complicated mechanisms,
occasionally malfunctions, usually due to a defective magazine or
cartridge. This disadvantage is, however, offset by the fact
that from the pistol about three times the number of shots
per minute may be fired as from a revolver; its magazines are
changed instantly, thus giving sustained fire while loaded maga-
zines are at hand. This gives a great advantage to the user of
a properly working pistol, as a revolver is often useless at close
quarters, such as obtained in trench raids, after its six shots have
been fired. In such positions the volume of fire from a group of
pistols is much greater than that from an equal number of re-
volvers even if a pistol is occasionally disabled by a jam.
Owing to its simpler mechanism, the revolver is more reliable
for civilian self-defence where more than two or three shots are
seldom required; the weapon then being unused and often
neglected for long periods. The revolver is also considered
superior to the automatic pistol in safety. In the latter, the
loaded cartridge automatically inserted in the chamber after
each shot is liable to be forgotten and left there when the maga-
zine is taken out. To prevent accidental discharge from this
source, some of the newer models have a " magazine safety,"
which prevents the pistol from being fired when the magazine
is out. In addition, a " grip safety," which prevents discharge
unless the rear part of the grip is pressed in at the same time the
trigger is pulled; and a safety catch, which locks the slide and
hammer, are often used. Recent models of revolvers show no
improvements of note, and it is probable that with the attention
now being given to the design of the automatic pistol, that
weapon will eventually be made as reliable, safe, and quick to
get into action as a good revolver.
In European armies previous to the World War, the pistol
was used almost exclusively as an officer's side arm. Their
weapons were of small calibre, ranging from 7-63 mm. to 9 mm.,
and lacked stopping power. During the war the use of the
pistol and revolver was extended to include many branches of
the service not armed with rifles, particularly by the United
States, British and German armies. The large calibre weapons
of the former armies gave them a great advantage in pistol
fighting, and their use confirmed previous opinions that a large
calibre heavy bullet of short range and low velocity is more
effective in a pistol than a high velocity, small calibre bullet.
Automatic pistols have now been adopted by the armies of
the United States, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Portugal,
Switzerland, Germany and Austria. The British navy has
adopted the Webley automatic pistol. In the table on page
107, details are given.
COLT AurOMATtC PISTOL.
FIG I.
Colt Automatic Pistol. The Colt automatic pistol, calibre .45
(fig. i), was adopted by the U. S. army in 1911. This pistol differs
radically from older Colt models in that it has a sloping handle, grip
safety (l), spiral mainspring (2), an improved method of locking the
barrel and breech, also an improved slide action and magazine catch
(3). The magazine (4) has a capacity of seven cartridges. The
ammunition for this pistol has a muzzle velocity of 800 f.s. with a 230-
grain bullet. The striking energy is 329 ft. lb., which gives a pene-
tration of 6 in. of white pine at 25 yards. The pistol is capable of
great rapidity of fire, 21 shots having been fired in 12 seconds
beginning with the pistol empty.
The action of the .45-calibre pistol, assuming that it is cocked and
ready to fire, is as follows: When the trigger (5) is pulled, the sear
(6) is released, and the hammer (7), actuated by the mainspring (2),
goes forward and strikes the firing-pin (8), which transmits the blow
to the primer of the cartridge. The pressure of the gases generated
in the barrel (9) by the explosion of the powder in the cartridge, is
exerted in a forward direction against the bullet, and in a rearward
direction through the cartridge case against the face of the slide (10),
driving the slide and the barrel to the rear together. The link (ll),
one end of which is fixed to the frame and the other to the barrel,
causes a downward pull on the barrel when it recoils, which disengages
the barrel lugs (12) from the slide, and the barrel is then stopped in
its lowest position. The slide continues to move to the rear, opening
the breech, and cocks the hammer (7) which moves the hammer
strut (13) downward, compressing the mainspring (2). The sear (6)
actuated by the sear spring (14) engages in the notch on the hammer
(7). Extracting and ejecting of the empty shell are accomplished and
the recoil spring (15) compressed until the slide reaches its rearmost
position, when another cartridge is raised into loading position. The
cartridge is forced into the chamber of the barrel by the return
movement of the slide under pressure of the recoil spring. The slide
during its forward motion encounters the rear extension of the barrel
and forces the barrel forward ; the rear end of the barrel swings
upward on the link (n) to the normal firing position. When the
slide and barrel reach their forward position they are positively
locked together by the locking lugs on the barrel and their joint
forward movement is arrested by the barrel lug encountering the pin
on the slide stop (16). The pistol is again ready for firing.
The inertia of the slide augmented by that of the barrel is so much
greater than the inertia of the bullet that the latter has been driven
from the muzzle of the barrel with its maximum velocity before the
slide and the barrel have recoiled to the point where the barrel com-
mences its unlocking movement. This construction delays the
opening of the breech of the barrel until after the bullet has left the
muzzle and therefore practically prevents the escape of any of the
powder gases to the rear after the breech has been opened.
io6
PISTOL
This factor of safety is further increased by the tension of the
recoil spring and mainspring, both of which oppose the rearward
movement of the slide.
The U.S. army uses the pistol as the standard side arm. All
officers and enlisted men in the cavalry, field artillery, tank corps,
signal corps and machine-gun companies, and most of the officers
and non-commissioned officers in other branches are armed with it.
In the shortage of pistols incident to the World War, Colt and
Smith & Wesson revolvers of the same calibre, chambered for the
same rimless cartridges, were used. The use of the rimless cartridge
in the revolver was accomplished by providing semicircular loading
clips which hold three cartridges by lugs which fit in the cannelure of
the cartridge. The ejection is accomplished by this means. The
clips make the loading much faster.
The Colt automatic pistol is also made in -22-in., -25-in., -32-in.,
38o-in., and -38-in. calibre military models.
BROWN/HG /HJTVM/mC P/STOL.
F/G. 2.
_ Browning Automatic Pistol. The new model Browning automatic
pistol (fig. 2) made by the Fabrique Nationale, Belgium, is repre-
sentative of modern automatic pistols of pocket size. This pistol is
made in 7-65-mm. (-32) and 9-mm. (-380) calibres. A military model
of 9-mm. calibre is also made which is used by the Belgian army.
The pistol shown is of the " blow back " type, the barrel (17) being
jocked to the frame (18), the slide (19) being free to recoil. On pull-
ing the trigger (20) and pressing in the grip safety (21), the sear (22)
revolves on its axis and releases the firing-pin (23), which actuated by
the coiled firing-pin spring (24), moves forward and fires the cart-
ridge. The inertia of the "slide assisted by the recoil spring (25)
delays the rearward motion of the slide until the bullet passes through
the barrel. The slide then recoils, compresses the recoil spring and
the firing-pin spring and ejects the empty cartridge case. When the
notch in the under side of the firing-pin passes over the sear nose, the
latter actuated by the sear spring (26) rises and holds the firing-pin
in a cocked position. When the effect of the recoil is overcome, the
slide moves forward in the usual manner feeding a loaded cartridge
in the chamber. The magazine (27) is released by the catch (28), and
when the magazine is taken out the magazine safety (29) locks the
sear and prevents discharge.
Webley Automatic Pistol. The Webley, the only automatic pistol
manufactured in Great Britain, is made in -25, -32, -380, -38 and -455
calibres (fig. 3). The latter size, which fires a 22O-grain bullet, has
been adopted by the British navy.
The action is unique in that a flat
recoil spring (30), situated in a re-
cess in the right grip and com-
pressed by the recoil lever (31),
absorbs the recoil and returns the
slide (32) to firing position. In the
larger calibres, the barrel (33) is
locked to the slide at the moment
of firing and these parts recoil
together a short distance; the bar-
rel then rises upon diagonal cam-
shaped lugs which unlock the slide and permit it to travel back alone.
During this rearward movement, the empty case is ejected and the
hammer (34) cocked. The forward motion of the slide then feeds a
cartridge from the magazine in the chamber in the usual manner.
The trigger (35) is connected with the sear (not shown) by means of
a trigger auxiliary lever (36) and sear tail (37). The magazine is
situated in the handle and holds eight cartridges.
The -32 calibre Webley pistol is used by the London metropolitan
police. A -25 calibre hammerless model has recently been brought
put which has a spiral recoil spring parallel to the barrel in a recess
in the slide.
WEBLE y AUTOnATIC
FIS. 3
Savage Automatic Pistol. This pistol (fig. 4), which is extensively
used in the United States, and has been adopted by the army and
navy of Portugal, is made in -32 and -380 calibres. The magazine
for the former holds ten cartridges ;
that for the latter, nine. The 1917
model differs from the previous
one in that an outside cocking lever
is added, and the shape of the grip
changed to facilitate aiming. There
is no grip safety or magazine safe-
ty on this pistol, the cocking lever
indicating whether it is in firing
position. The barrel and breech
are locked at the moment of firing
bv means of a locking lug on top
of the barrel which engages with an angular locking slot in the
bolt and makes it necessary for the barrel to rotate about one-
eighth of a turn to the right to unlock. The resistance of the bullet
to rotation in the rifling tends to twist the barrel to the left and
prevents the bolt from turning it to the right until the bullet leaves
the barrel. The momentum of the recoil then forces the bolt back,
the angular slot rotates the barrel and the rest of the cycle of opera-
tions is performed much as in the pistols already explained.
SAVAGE AUTOMATIC PISTOL.
Remington Automatic Pistol. The newest (1920) model automatic
pistol to be placed on the market is the Remington -380 calibre auto-
matic (fig. 5). In general this weapon follows the usual lines of auto-
matic pistols. The breech closure is of the positively locked recoil-
operated type. The recoil spring is held in a sleeve concentric with
the barrel, and the magazine, which holds seven cartridges, is in the
stock. The weapon has three safety devices: a grip safety, a side
safety catch which also indicates whether the weapon is cocked or
not, and a magazine safety which prevents the pistol from being
fired when the magazine is withdrawn. The recoil when a shot is
fired forces a movable breech block in the slide backward for about
fg in., and into contact with recesses in the frame, this movement
accomplishes primary extraction and transmits an initial thrust to
the slide which is free to move backward against the recoil spring.
This movement of the slide through a camming action lifts the
breech block out of engagement with the frame and carries the
breech back, cocking an internal hammer and ejecting the empty
case. The chamber is reloaded in the usual manner on the return
stroke. There are no screws in this pistol and it may be disassembled
without tools other than the firing-pin.
European Pistols. The German Parabellum (Luger) and Mauser
pistols have been little changed from those described in previous
editions of the E.B. The Parabellum o-mm. calibre is the stand-
ard German military arm, but during the shortage, incident to the
World War, they used a great variety of weapons, the principal
ones being the Mauser, Bayard, Browning, Borchardt, Bergman,
Pieper, Sauer and Dreyse. There were reported to be 28 different
models of pistols and revolvers in use in the German army. The
Parabellum is also used by the Swiss and Bulgarian armies.
A drum or " snail " magazine (fig. 6) holding 32 cartridges was
applied to the Luger pistol during the war. This magazine consists
of a straight section similar to the ordinary pistol magazine with a
round enclosed drum at the bottom. There are two springs, one
functioning as an ordinary magazine spring, and a flat drum spring
resembling a clock spring which with its casing fills the drum except
for space for a single row of cartridges around the_ edge. There is a
lever and catch on the outside for winding this spring and a rotating
feeding lever inside which fits in the cartridge space between the inner
casing and drum. The magazine spring is compressed between the
last cartridge and this lever, which being revolved by the drum spring
pushes the magazine spring and cartridges around the drum as the
pistol is fired. When the drum is empty the magazine spring func-
tions in the usual manner. This style of magazine was also applied
PITTSBURGH
107
to the Bergman pistol gun and the Mondragon semi-automatic
rifle. It destroys the balance of an arm and is of doubtful value.
The Bayard automatic pistol 9-mm. calibre is used in the Danish
army. The commercial pistols of this make in -32 and -380 calibres
LUGER
W/TH J/M/L M/1S/IZ/HE'.
F/G 6
are the smallest automatics of these calibres on the market. The
Victoria is the smallest -25 calibre. The Mannlicher is used by the
Austrian army.
The Campo-Giro automatic pistol g-mm. calibre was adopted by
Spain in 1914. The principal merit claimed for it is that a special
recoil check lessens the shock and permits more accurate firing.
the entire city. The mayor continued to appoint the heads of
departments (safety, works, health, charities, supplies, prop-
erty, water, treasury). The comptroller also was elected as
formerly by popular vote. The expanding of public business in
the city and county, exceeding the capacity of the city hall and
the court-house, led to the erection by joint action of a new City-
County Building, a fine structure of nine stories. The county in
1920 was completing a twin tunnel under Mount Washington to
connect the southern hill district with the city by a high level
bridge over the Monongahela river, which will bring that dis-
trict within 15 minutes' transit of the centre of the city. In 1919
the taxable valuation of Pittsburgh was $1,113,667,425, and the
tax rate in 1921 was, for the city, 20 mills on land, 14 mills on
buildings and 8-50 mills for school purposes. In 1919 a bond issue
of $22,500,000 was voted by the people for subway, boulevards,
playgrounds, bridges, parks, etc.
The value of Pittsburgh's products in 1919 was $602,582,300,
compared to $246,694,000 in 1914. In 1920 it held sixth place in
bank clearings ($8,982,887,309) and first place in per capita deposits
(total $817,013,249) and in the manufactured products iron, steel,
glass, electrical machinery, steel cars, tin-plate, air brakes, fire-brick,
white lead, pickles and preserves, corks and aluminium. The pro-
duction of pig iron in the city in 1919 was 31,015,364 tons and in the
surrounding district 7,440,746 more, a total of 38,456,110 tons.
Metal and metal products were valued at $324,261,900; chemical
products $2,045,800; clay, glass and stone products $4,345,500;
clothing manufacture $7,122,800; slaughtering and meat-packing
$21,134,700; confectionery $6,490,500; leather and rubber products
$5,589,700; cork-cutting $4,016,500; oil-well supplies $3,678,100.
The production of radium in 1920 (18 gr.) probably exceeded that
of the rest of the world. The sum of $970,072,700 was invested in
2,580 industrial plants, mills, foundries and furnaces, in which were
employed 221,621 men, with a daily pay-roll (1920) exceeding
$2,500,000. The annual tonnage of Pittsburgh is 2j times the com-
bined tonnage of New York, London and Hamburg. As a port of
AUTOMATIC PISTOLS AND THEIR CARTRIDGES
Cartridge
Barrel
Length,
Inches
Weight
of Bullet,
Grains
Muzzle
Velocity,
Ft.
Seconds
Energy
of Bullet,
Ft. Lb.
22 Long rifle rim fire ............
22 Colt Auto, target model ...........
6J .
4.O
76S
si-8
25 Auto. Colt, Webley & Scott, Harrington & Richardson (also inter-
changeable with 6-35 mm. Browning [Fabrique Nationale], Mauser, Pieper,
\\
CO
7-1-3
M
86
I ^Q7
7*65 Luger . . ...
4-f
Q-l
I I7VS
284-'*
32 Auto. Colt, Webley & Scott, Savage, Harrington & Richardson (also
interchangeable with 7-65 mm. Browning [Fabrique Nationale], Bayard,
4.
74.
Q64.
T Co* A
35 Smith and Wesson ............
I*
76
8oq
no- c.
9 mm. Luger .............
4.
12^
I O^Q-2
2QQ-8
38 Auto. Colt, Bayard
si
130
1,146-3
^70-4.
380 Colt Auto., Savage, Webley, Browning 9 mm. (Short), Remington,
3i
95
887
116
45 Colt Auto
5
200
9IO'2
-568
45 Colt Auto., U.S. Government
445 Webley Naval Automatic
5
230
220
809
7IO
335
455 Colt Automatic
PITTSBURGH (see 21.678) had, according to the U.S. census
of 1920, a pop. of 588,193. The increase over 1910 was 54,288 or
10-2%. After the 1920 census was taken the township of Char-
tiers, with a pop. of 5,000, was annexed, petitions were filed for
the annexation of the borough of Homestead with a pop. of
20,452, and a movement was on foot for the merger of the bor-
oughs of Wilkensburg (24,403), Ingram (4,000), Grafton (5,934)
and others. Within the metropolitan district of a lo-m. radius,
but outside the city limits proper, there was a further population
equal in number to that within the municipality itself. In Alle-
gheny county, of which Pittsburgh is the county seat and busi-
ness centre, there were in 1920 1,184,832 persons, 13-6% of the
total pop. of Pennsylvania.
The sesqui-centennial of Pittsburgh, elaborately observed in
1908, marked the beginning of a new period of corporate, educa-
tional, social and material development. By legislative enact-
ment (1911) the former Common and Select Councils gave way
to a small council of nine members, elected by general vote of
(H. O'L.)
entry the value of imports in 1918 was $6,391,960. The city's
contribution to the Liberty and Victory loans was $625,429,600,
to the Red Cross $10,194,765, and to the seven relief agencies
$13,909,000, making a total of $649,533,365.
In 1911 the Legislature adopted a new school code for the entire
commonwealth, coming into operation Nov. II 1911. Under this
code a Board of Education, consisting of 15 members appointed by
the Common Pleas judges, took control. Separate school districts
were abolished; a new city superintendent, with associate superin-
tendents, was appointed ; the scattered and unrelated school agencies
were consolidated; new high schools and junior high schools estab-
jished and buildings erected, such as the Schenley high school, built
in 1916 at a cost of $1,500,000 and accommodating 2,000 students.
New ward schools of modern construction were established. The
teachers numbered in 1920 2,015 m r 33 grade schools and 494 in II
high schools, and the enrolment of pupils in grades was 74,654 and in
high schools 12,169. There were in evening grades 198 teachers and
6,245 pupils, and in evening high schools 148 teachers and 5,090
pupils. The public-school system was supplemented by parochial
schools which had in 1920 650 teachers and 33,000 pupils. In addi-
tion to the high schools there were a number of academies and other
schools, 77 in all, on private foundations. The development of higher
education during the decade was notable. The Holy Ghost College
io8
PIUS X. PLUMER
became Duquesne University, and in 1920 had 2,129 students,
including department of law, 86 students, and evening school of
accounts and finance, 1,120 students. The Carnegie Institute in the
decade increased the extent of its service to the community; its
central library, with 464,313 volumes, had 8 branches, i6stations, 128
school stations, 10 club stations and 8 playground stations, with a
circulation of 1,363,365 books; both the scientific museum and the
art department added greatly to their collections; in the school of
technology the enrolment grew from 2,102 students in 1909 to 4,982
students in 1920, including those in the departments of science and
engineering, arts, industries and the Margaret Morrison school for
women. The university of Pittsburgh, established in 1908 by assem-
bling the scattered departments of what was the Western University
of Pennsylvania, and taking over 43 ac. near the Carnegie Institute
for a campus, grew rapidly in its new location, and in 1920 numbered
4,979 students. In the same year there were in the city 227 social,
health, religious and welfare agencies.
After careful study of playground systems a bond issue of J8oo,ooo
was voted (1919) to initiate'a constructive development of parks and
playgrounds at public expense. Another civic improvement was the
plan that a permanent committee of citizens should be engaged in
the solving of the housing problem, and that the chamber of com-
merce, cooperating with the state, should employ a director in charge
of the Americanization programme in which the public schools and
corporations cooperate. The Society for the Improvement of the
Poor, constructed and opened (1921) the Wayfaring hotel to accom-
modate 500 men. The 20 hospitals, modern in construction and
equipment, with 4,500 beds, included special hospitals for children,
eye and ear, maternity, tuberculosis, and contagious diseases. The
Magee hospital, established by legacy of 83,500,000 under will of
the late C. L. Magee, by agreement the maternity hospital of the
university of Pittsburgh, is perhaps the most modern and complete
maternity hospital in America. (S. B. Me.)
PIUS X. [GIUSEPPE SARTO] (1835-1914), Pope (see 21.600),
died Aug. 20 1914. Although the pontificate of Pius X. lasted
only ii years (Aug. 4 1903 Aug. 20 1914), it has been said that
his work for the Church, reconstructive and reformative, sur-
passed that of any of his predecessors since the days of Sixtus V.,
who died in 1590. In the defence of the Faith, his condemnation
of the 65 propositions of Modernism in 1007 will rank in Catho-
lic theology as a parallel to the condemnation of the 68 proposi-
tions of Molinism by Innocent XI. in 1637 or the 101 propo-
sitions of Jansenism condemned by Clement XI. in 1713.
The activity of the pontificate may be judged by the fact that its
output of papal Bulls and greater official papal documents
(counting only those published) exceeded 3,322. These bear
upon undertakings and reforms of the first importance the
codification of canon law; the protection of the liberty of the
Conclave by the abolition of the Exclusiva; the simplification
and security of the conditions of marriage by the Ne Temere