education was remodelled by decrees of July 14 and Sept. 8 1918.
In May 1914 a military school of aeronautics was created. Other
decrees dealt with agricultural credit (1914), accidents to workmen
(1913 and 1914) and work of minors and women (1915). On March 9
1918 a Ministry of Agriculture was created, but the decrees stimulat-
ing production were of a tentative and contradictory character.
Uncultivated land has to pay a small tax per acre and becomes the
property of the State if still uncultivated in 20 years from 1911. In
March 1921 a much-needed bill was introduced providing for the
building of new roads and for the repair each year of 312 miles of
existing roads during 1922-31.

Defence. On Jan. 19 1911 a commission appointed to reorganize
the navy recommended the acquisition from Great Britain of three
battleships of the dreadnought type, similar to the " Minas Geraes "
of the Brazilian navy. This recommendation was adopted in the new



naval programme submitted by the Minister of Marine in Dec.
1911, which involved the purchase of 3 battleships of 20,000 tons
each, 3 scouts of 3,000 tons, 12 torpedo-boats of 820 tons and 6
submarines. On May I 1912 a bill was introduced fixing the naval
force at 4,500 men, as compared with 5,687 in 1910. On Jan. 27
1913 a commission was appointed for the creation of a naval arsenal
on the S. bank of the Tagus.

Finance. The average annual revenue from 1907-8 till the revo-
lution (1910) was 14,456,000, and the average deficit 500,000.
After the revolution special attention was given to finance. A com-
mittee appointed to examine into various loans made by the State
to the House of Braganza assessed the total to June 18 1912 at
nearly 800,000, of which 720,000 had been advanced to King
Carlos, 24,500 to the Duke of Oporto and 16,400 to Queen Amelia.
The Government decided to reimburse itself from King Manoel's
property in Portugal.

The budget for 1911-2 showed a deficit reduced to 435,000, but
an increased expenditure of 1,026,800. The deficit for 1912-3,
estimated at 710,000, was converted into a surplus of 33,400 in
August. The 1913-4 budget showed a total revenue of 15,178,843
and a surplus of 195,778, of which 111,800 was destined for the
new naval programme. These figures were obtained by adding to the
debt. On Aug. 31 1913 the debt stood at 145,917,500, an increase of
1,596,000 over its amount on Dec. 31 1912. In presenting the 1915-6
budget, with an estimated deficit of 2,120,400, it was decided to
separate ordinary and war expenditure, but in practice, although two
budgets were presented, the expenditure was not kept strictly sep-
arate. The double budget of 1916-7 provided for an ordinary expen-
diture of 17,220,000, with 403,400 deficit, and a war expenditure of
15,000,000. The war added an average of 20,000,000 yearly to the
debt, which reached 22 7, 000,000 on July I 1918. Portugal was further
indebted to Great Britain to the extent of 16,000,000 advanced for
expenses at the front and 2,000,000 for war expenses in Portugal.
The 1920-1 budget, presented in Feb. 1920, before that of the pre-
vious year had been voted, showed a revenue of 26,581,000 and a
deficit of 25,555,000, an increase of 7,333,000 over the deficitof the
previous year. It was proposed to extinguish the deficit by a reduc-
tion in the cost of the civil service and a war-profits tax, calculated
to yield 22,222,000, but the Government fell before the proposals
could be carried into effect. In Dec. 1920 heavy property and indus-
trial taxes were imposed. By the 1921-2 estimates, presented in
Jan. 1921, the deficit was increased to 58,888,000 on a total ex-
penditure of 106,610,000. At the end of 1920 the debt was unoffi-
cially estimated as follows: external 53,777,000, floating 123,-
939,000, internal 325,333,000 total 503,049,000. The paper
currency, which at the end of 1910 stood at 16,000,000 (at par of
exchange, namely, 4,500 reis = l), had risen to 82,361,000 in Dec.
1919, and to 118,361,000 in Sept. 1920. A further increase of
44,444,000 was voted by Parliament in Dec. 1920. In that month
the 3 % external debt was quoted at 22. The agio on gold, which was
5 in Oct. 1910 and 16 in Aug. 1914, exceeded 1,100 % in Feb. 1921,
but fell to half that amount a few months later. The floating debt,
which immediately before the war was 19,555,000 (at par of ex-
change), stood at 119,555,000 on Dec. 31 1919. The heavy depreci-
ation in the exchange, however, must be allowed for.

In Feb. 1921 the Banco Nacional Ultramarino became the sole
agent of the Royal Bank of Scotland and of some English banks.

Commerce. Portugal's foreign trade, which in 1913 had reached
22,094,500 in imports and 11,355,000 in exports, further expanded
during the World War, and in 1917 amounted (at par of exchange)
to 37,391,700 imports and 19,121,500 exports. The trade between
Portugal and her African colonies almost doubled between 1911 and
1917. In 1917 5,860 ships of 4,906,599 tonnage entered Portuguese
ports, as compared with 10,638 of 24,368,120 tonnage in 1913. The
total tonnage of German ships seized in 1916 was 242,441, of which
157,333 were handed over to the Allies. Portugal lost 28,637 tons
of shipping by enemy action, and her merchant shipping at the end
of 1918 stood at 100,000 tons.

A treaty of arbitration for five years, between Portugal and Great
Britain, was signed at London on Nov. 16 1914. The commercial
treaty between the two countries, signed at Lisbon on Aug. 12 1914,
became effective on Sept. 23 1916.

Foreign Exchange. After the war serious efforts were made to
grapple with the problem of the exchange, which was aggravated by
the decree of May 31 1919 placing the financial agency at Rio de
Janeiro in private hands. A decree of April 27 1918 provided that
when the exchange was at 29!, 50% of the customs duties should
be paid in gold at that rate and 50% at par, until the exchange
reached 38 3 /22, when the whole of the duties was to be paid in gold at
par. A decree of Feb. 4 1920 totally prohibited a large number of
imports, thus depriving the exchequer of an important source of
revenue. Neither the Banking Consortium (Jan. lO-May 26 1920)
nor the attempt to fix the rate of exchange officially, was effective in
preventing a further rapid depreciation in Portuguese money, owing
to the almost complete absence of gold (the reserve having fallen to
under 2 % in 1920) and to decreased production. As a result of the
cost of labour and the fixed price of bread, cultivation of wheat dim-
inished steadily from 1918, its best year. In 1918 the 248 million kgm.
produced fell short of requirements by 56 million kilograms. The most
important export trade wine suffered during the war from trans-






PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA



133



port difficulties and, later, from the reduced demand in Great Britain
and the loss of the markets of the United States, Canada, Russia and
Norway. The wine trade attained its maximum in 1919, when the
cost of transport fell from 15 to 4 a pipe and Great Britain im-
ported 12,458,220 gallons. In 1920 Great Britain imported only
5,914,575 gal. and a huge stock was left on the hands of the merchants.
Portuguese manufacturing industries, which expanded considerably
during the war, despite the coal shortage, were similarly affected by
decreased demand in 1920, for which the expansion of colonial trade
did not entirely compensate.

Population. The pop. of Portugal numbered 5,547,708 in 1911,
not including the inhabitants of the Azores and Madeira, which
amounted to 412,348 in the same year. The pop. of the chief towns
(1911 census) were: Lisbon 435,399, Oporto 194,099, Setubal 30,346,
Ilhavo 14,130, Povoa de Varzim 12,115, Tavira 11,665, Faro 12,680,
Ovar 11,416, Olhao 10,890, Viana do Castello 10,486, Aveiro 11,523,
Louie 19,688, Coimbra 20,581, Evora 17,901, Covilha 15,745,
Elvas 10,645, Portalegre 11,603, Palmella 13,318, Torres Novas
13,961.

Literature. Literature in Portugal from 1911 to 1921 was marked
chiefly by the death of prominent men of letters of philologists,
Goncalvez Viana (1914), Epiphanio Dias (1916), Julio Moreira
(1917) and Adolpho Coelho (1919); critics, Ramalho Ortigao (1917)
and D. Maria Amalia Vaz de Carvalho (1921); novelists, Fialho de
Almeida (1911), Abel Botelho (1917) andTeizeira de Queiroz (1919) ;
the dramatist Marcellino Mesquita (1919) ; poets, Antonio Feijo
('917)1 Jao Penha (1919) and Gomes Leal (1921). But although
the revolution was followed by no great literary revival, most
useful work was accomplished, including much-needed and impor-
tant reprints and editions of the classics. Among these may be
mentioned the scholarly editions of Dr. J. J. Nunes and of Dr.
Esteves Pereira, who in 1918 published the Livro da Montana of
King Joao I. from the original manuscript. Valuable material for
the future historian of Portugal was brought together by the re-
searches of several scholars, among whom Mr. Edgar Prestage
specialized on the I7th century. The Revista de Historia has been
published regularly since 1912. Senhor J. Lucio de Azevedo followed
up his Life of Pombal with notable studies on Antonio Vieira.
Dr. Leite de Vasconcellos' invaluable Revista Lusitania reached its
2Oth volume in 1917. In poetry a national tendency set in which is
strongly marked in Dr. Lopes Vieira's Ilhas de Bruma (1917). The
veteran poet, Senhor Guerra Junqueiro, published Poesias Dis-
persas in 1920. In the field of essay the glowing style and national
fervour of Senhor Antero de Fiqueiredo in Leonor Teles (1916),
Jornadas em Portugal (1918), RecordaQoes e Viagens (2nd ed. 1916),
and other works, are notable. The growing interest in Portuguese
literature in England was marked by the foundation of a chair of
Portuguese literature at King's College, London, in 1917.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general study of the country see L. Poinsard,
Le Portugal Inconnu (1911) ; A. Marvaud, Le Portugal et ses Colonies
(1912); G. Diercks, Das Moderne Portugal (1913); A. F. G. Bell,
Portugal of the Portuguese (1915); G. Young, Portugal: An His-
torical Study (1916) ; Bento Carqueja, O Povo Portuguez (1916) and
Futuro de Portugal (2nd ed. 1920); Ezequiel de Campes, A Con-
servaftio da Riqueza Nacional (1917); Capt. B. Granville Baker,
A Winter Holiday in Portugal (1912); A. F. G. Bell, In Portugal
(1912); G. Diercks, Porlugiesische Geschichle (1912); A. Herculano,
Historia de Portugal, illustrated edition in 8 vols. (1914-6) ; H. da
Gama Barros, Historia da Administrate publica em Portugal nos
seculos XII. a XV. (3 yols. 1895-6 and 1914); Dr. Mendes dos
Remedies, Historia da Litteratura Portugueza (=>th ed. 1921); F. de
Figueiredo, Historia da Litteratura Romantica Portugueza (1913),
Historia da Litteratiira Realista (1914), Historia da Litteratura
Classica (1917), dealing with the i6th century, and A Critica Lit-
teraria como Sciencia (3rd ed. 1920). What purports to be a summary
of the literature of Dr. Theophilo Braga consists of 4 vols. : Edade
Media (1909), Renascenca (1914), Os Seiscentistas (1916), Os Arcades
(1918). ' (A. F. G. B.)

PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA, or MOZAMBIQUE (see 22.163).
As the result of the World War in what was formerly the German
territory adjoining, Portuguese East Africa has become bordered
andward entirely by British, or British administered, territory.
In 1919 " the Kionga triangle," some 400 sq. m. in size, and
including the southern shore of the estuary of the Rovuma, was
transferred to the province having been part of German East
Africa. The pop. in 1918 was roughly estimated at 3,000,000
to 3,500,000; no systematic census had been made and the
inhabitants in areas not controlled by the Portuguese were not
included. Europeans, exclusive of troops, numbered some
12,000; Asiatics (mainly Indian traders) 15,000-18,000. Lou-
renco Marques, the capital, with suburbs had about 20,000
inhabitants of whom 5,500 were white (700 being British).

Products and Trade. An increase in the area under sugar, greater
attention to the plantations of coco-nut palms (for copra), the
introduction of sisal growing (from German East Africa) and the
cultivation of maize for export were directions in which endeavours



were made to increase the resources of the province in 191121. The
sugar plantations were mainly in the region between Beira and the
Zambezi, a region governed under charter by the Company of
Mozambique, in which British capital was largely interested.
Between 1911 and 1919 the area under sugar trebled and the output
reached 35,000 tons yearly. Most of it was produced by the Sena
Sugar Co. and shipped at Beira. Sisal was cultivated mostly in the
Quilimane area; in 1916 the export was 2,200 tons of fibre.

Before the World War trade was mainly divided between British,
Portuguese and Germans; the Germans financed the Banyans
(Indian traders) who retailed " Kaffir truck " to the natives, a busi-
ness worth 250,000 or more a year. In return the natives sold,
principally, ground nuts of which some 2,000 tons were exported
annually. North of the Zambezi German merchants had nearly all
the trade, both import and export, and had begun to oust even the
Banyan. In the S., at Delagoa Bay and Beira British, firms held over
50 % of the trade. The war eliminated the German trader.

No uniform system of trade statistics was adopted in the three
administrative areas into which the province was divided. The
following figures are approximations to accuracy : in 191 1 imports
8,250,000, exports 2,250,000. The imports include some 6,800,000,
in and out transit trade through Delagoa Bay and Beira. For 1913
the imports (excluding transit trade) were given at 2,053,000;
exports at 2,720,000. Portuguese figures for 1917 (excluding Beira)
gave the imports at 2,800,000; the exports at 1,500,000, not
reckoning transit trade pr reexports.

The imports for local use were mainly textiles, provisions and
machinery. Large quantities of wine, " vinho colonial," are imported
from Portugal for native consumption in 1913 the amount received
at Lourenco Marques alone was 1 ,620,000 gallons valued at 105,000.
In 1920 alcohol was declared by the high commissioner of Mozam-
bique to be the curse of the province. The great bulk of the trade
was in transit to or from the Transvaal, Rhodesia or British Nyasa-
land. The import of most direct benefit to the province was coal
from the Transvaal. From 1912 onward Lourenco Marques became
important both for the export and bunkering trade. (For the rela-
tions of the province with the Transvaal see DELAGOA BAY.)

Communications. During 1910-20 several short lines of railway
were built from the seaports. The largest scheme was to connect
Delagoa Bay and Inhambane. This line with a total length of 280
m. was planned in independent sections, and 1 60 m. had been com-
pleted by 1916; the central section had not been built in 1920. The
building of a railway (about 170 m. long) from Beira to the Zambezi,
opposite Chindio, was begun in 1920 under a guarantee of the British
Nyasaland Protectorate, its object being to afford that protectorate
an ocean gateway. From Chindio a railway, completed in May 1915,
goes to Port Herald where it connects with the Shire Highlands rail-
way. A route for a railway from Port Amelia to Lake Nyasa was
surveyed in 1912. The line would have been built by a German
company but for the outbreak of the World War. Up to 1921 a few
miles only of rails had been laid from Port Amelia. Wireless tele-
graph stations have been erected at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane and
Mozambique town.

Finance. Revenue was obtained chiefly from a hut tax, customs
and taxes on emigration, i.e. a poll tax paid to the provincial authori-
ties for natives recruited for the Transvaal gold mines and other
work. In 1913-4 revenue and expenditure were budgeted for
1,312,000; in 1917-8 at 1,809,000. " Cost of administration " was
given as the chief item of expenditure, not unnaturally, as in 1917
there were over 10,000 persons in Government pay.

History. The efforts made by chartered companies and
reforming governors to develop the province left its vast natural
resources up to 1920 scarcely touched. The Portuguese lacked
capital with which to undertake large operations, the settler
class was not on the whole of a satisfactory character, the ad-
ministrative system was very defective, and up to 1914 the
interests of the province were entirely subordinated to the
assumed interests of Portugal. In that year following an
agitation in which the then governor-general of the province,
Senhor de Magelhas, took the lead, Mozambique was granted
partial autonomy and in 1920, when Dr. Brito Camacho was
appointed high commissioner, further reforms were enacted.
The general trend of events during 1910-20 was to show the
province as of value chiefly as a passage-way to and from the
Transvaal, Rhodesia and British Nyasaland. Partly because of
the necessity of keeping this passage-way open it was in this
period that Portuguese authority was first made fairly effective
throughout the province. Moslem chiefs along the coast in the
region opposite Mozambique Island were subjugated by 1910,
after a four years' contest, and the hinterland tribes then sub-
mitted with little resistance. The occupation of the interior of
Portuguese Nyasaland, begun in earnest in 1909, met, however,
with strong opposition from the natives and was not completed
till 1912, when Mataka, the most powerful opponent of the



134



POTIOREK POULTRY



Portuguese, fled across the Rovuma into German territory. In
1915 there was a widespread revolt in the Zambezi valley and
farther S., which was not fully suppressed till the end of 1917.

The paramount economic interests of Great Britain in the
southern part of the province, including the delta of the Zambezi,
were recognized in the Anglo-German draft agreement prepared
in 1913-4, but not signed owing to the outbreak of the World
War. By that agreement the part of the province N. of the
Liconga (Licungo) river (which reaches the sea over 100 m. N. of
the Zambezi delta) was to be in the economic sphere of Germany
(see AFRICA: History). The larger part of this northern area was
governed, under a charter, by the Nyasa Company. That
company, for lack of funds, had done little to develop its terri-
tory. In 1914 German capitalists succeeded, through a neutral
intermediary, in obtaining control of the Nyasa Co. and by the
aid of a German directorate they sought to acquire political
control, and advance the scheme for the creation of a German
Mittel-Afrika. The World War put an end to this design.

Early in 1917 German raiding parties entered Portuguese
territory and in Nov. of that year Gen. von Lettow Vorbeck, to
escape capture crossed into the province from German East
Africa, carrying on the war there for nearly a year (see GERMAN
EAST AFRICA). Von Lettow helped to prove the natural resources
of the regions he traversed, while aerial reconnaissances by the
British gave material for mapping.

See A Manual of Portuguese East Africa and Portuguese Nyasa-
land, both British Admiralty publications (1920); Mozambique, a
handbook issued by the British Foreign Office (1918-9) aN with
bibliographies; The South and East African Year Book and Guide,
ed. by A. S. and G. G. Brown (London yearly) ; the Anuario Colonial
and Rivista Colonial, both Lisbon publications. (F. R. C.)

POTIOREK, OSKAR (1853- ), Austro-Hungarian general
of artillery, was born at Blieburg, Carinthia, in 1853. He gradu-
ated from the Engineers' Academy as lieutenant in 1871. His
career was chiefly spent on the General Staff, of which he was
one of the most distinguished representatives. He held there
the important post of Chief of the Section of Operations, later
that of Deputy to the Chief of the General Staff, Count Beck.
After Beck's retirement he was in command of the III. Corps,
in 1911 Army Inspector and Governor (Landeschef) in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. As such, he was officially responsible for counte-
nancing the fateful visit of the heir to the throne to Serajevo,
out of which the World War ensued. In the offensive taken by
Austria against Serbia in the winter of 1914, which eventually
broke down after great initial success, his judgment was also
found wanting.

POULTRY (see 22.213). During 1900-20 there were many
changes and developments in the poultry industry, as carried on
in Great Britain. New breeds were evolved or imported, while
some of the older breeds have diminished in popularity and,
except for small numbers kept by persistent breeders, have almost
died out. Far more striking, however, has been the rapid evolu-
tion of the present-day utih'ty breeds, the extension of public
" laying trials " and the development of extensive commercial
egg farms and breeding farms, accompanied by new mass methods
of hatching, rearing, feeding and housing. The agriculturist has
shown slowly increasing interest in poultry-keeping as a business
branch of farm operations, and there has been a notable expansion
of poultry-keeping by residents in urban and suburban areas.
The view so strongly held for many years by the majority of
people who thought about the matter at all that poultry-keep-
ing was not a practicable commercial proposition except as a
small side-line, and in circumstances where waste food for the
birds was available at little or no cost, has been very much modi-
fied, for the reason that poultry-keepers, who have derived the
main portion of their livelihood over a period of years from one or
more branches of the industry, have so obviously increased in
numbers. In addition numerous authentic instances of profit-
able results obtained from poultry-keeping as a subsidiary
occupation have been made public. Hence in recent years
increasing numbers of people have turned their attention to
poultry-keeping, and in several instances the capital involved



in well-known poultry farms amounts to several thousands of
pounds. So far successful British poultry farming comprises one
or more of the following branches: Breeding laying strains of
poultry; the production of exhibition stock; the sale of day-old
chicks, eggs for hatching and stock birds; the production of eggs
and poultry for consumption. The production of table poultry is
in practically every case a subsidiary branch, and was particu-
larly so during the war owing to the scarcity of feeding-stuffs.

It is not possible to form any reliable estimate of the value of the
poultry-stock-breeding industry in the United Kingdom, as no com-
plete figures are available. Every experienced observer knows, how-
ever, that the increase in the demand for and supply of eggs for hatch-
ing, day-old chicks, and pure-bred stock birds, has been very con-
siderable during the past few years. Nor can any reliable estimate be
made of the growth of table poultry and egg production, since there
are insufficient data upon which to base an estimate. It is possible,
however, to make a rough estimate of the total annual value of table
poultry and egg production.

In 1908, in connexion with the Census of Production Act of 1906,
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries published a poultry census
for Great Britain showing that the number of poultry kept by
occupiers of agricultural holdings exceeding one ac. in extent was
36,728,000. In its report, however, the Board draws special atten-
tion to the limitation of the scope of the returns to holdings exceeding
one ac., and points out " that poultry are very largely kept by cot-
tagers and persons who do not come within the definition of agricul-
tural holdings, while a further very large poultry population would no
doubt be enumerated if the returns were extended to the towns."

In addition to obtaining this census, each occupier was asked to
state the number of home-bred poultry of each description sold during
the preceding twelve months, and special schedules were issued to all
occupiers returning not less than 50 fowls or 10 ducks, geese or
turkeys, asking for the number of males and females, respectively,
hatched before 1908, the number of eggs produced, sold for con-
sumption, or sold or used for hatching, and the number of young and
adult birds sold. As a result the report states that there were 15^
million adult hens on farms in Great Britain in 1908, that the aver-
age annual egg yield per hen was 72, and that the total value of the
output of eggs and poultry was calculated to be about 5,000,000. The
report, however, emphasizes the fact that this sum " takes no ac-
count of poultry kept by cottagers, residents in towns and others not
within the scope of the Agricultural Returns. The aggregate produc-