parachute-like action in both fore and hind limbs. Recent con-
tributions of note on this subject are those of Gerhard Heilmann
(1913) and of William Beebe (1915), and the synthetic reviews of
Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917).

Origin of Mammals. Evidence has been accumulating rapidly
in favour of the theory that the origin of the mammals should be
traced to the more progressive terrestrial mammal-like reptiles
(the Cynodonlia) of the Permian and Triassic of South Africa
and Europe, as described in the studies of Broom, Watson,
Haughton, Osborn and Gregory. Structurally related to these
Cynodonts are the so-called Protodonls of Osborn, e.g. Droma-
Iherium and Microconodon of the Triassic of North Carolina.
But of equal antiquity are the multituberculates, e.g. Plagiaulax
and Microlestes, widely spread over Europe and North America.
No substantial additions have been made during the decade to
our knowledge of this vague period; readers are referred to the
reviews of Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917), also to the recent
works of Gregory, The Orders of Mammals (1910) and The
Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition (1921).

Origin of Primates and of Man. Combined palaeontological
and anatomical evidence indicates that the source of the Primates
is to be looked for among tree-living insectivorous mammals
more or less closely similar to the modern tree shrews ( Tupaiidae)
of Africa. This view advanced with ability by Gregory is in
general accord with the opinion that during the phase of arboreal
life many of the psychic and anatomical characters of the Pri-
mates were acquired. It was not until the Lower Eocene of
North America and of Europe that there appeared undisputed
Primates of lemuroid affinity, e.g. notharctids and tarsioids in
America, adapids and tarsioids in Europe. At this time the
zoological relation of the two continents was close and it would
appear that while the primitive horses were acquiring their
cursorial characters on the ground, these primitive lemuroids
were acquiring their distinctive characteristics in the trees.
Actual ancestors of the existing Tarsius of Madagascar have
been found in France (Pseudoloris). The attempt of Ameghino to
trace the higher Primates to South American types, e.g. Homun-
culus, appearing in the Lower Miocene of Patagonia, is not sup-
ported, because these animals from the first are the true broad-
nosed, i.e. platyrrhine, type still characteristic of South America.
The Old World division of the catarrhines or narrow-nosed true
Primates has been traced to the Parapithecus, described by Max
Schlosser from the Lower Oligocene of Egypt. Propliopithecus is
possibly ancestral to the true anthropoid apes and thus possibly
related to the ancestors of man himself. Darwin's broad con-
clusion that man was derived from " some ancient member of
the anthropomorphous subgroup of Old World Primates " is
fully sustained by anatomical evidence, but the precise lines of
descent are still in dispute. Some hold that the human line came
from Middle Tertiary anthropoid apes allied to Dryopithecus
of France and Sivapithecus of India, while others (including the
present writer) regard the Hominidae as a widely distinct family
separated especially by its upright walking gait, by the non-
divergence of the great toe, and by the retention of its tool-making
thumb. A series of masterly reviews of this whole question has
appeared in the American Museum publications from Gregory,
whose recent memoir On the Structure and Relations of Noth-
arctus, an American Eocene Primate (1920) sums up our present
knowledge of this whole subject. (See also ANTHROPOLOGY.)

The Dinosaur Fauna of Alberta, Canada. The greatest new



achievement in exploration is the revelation of the dinosaur
fauna of Alberta in the fossil beds extending along the Red Deer
river, which were first made known to science by explorers of
the Canadian Geological Survey in 1897, 1898, 1901. The first
general review of this wonderful fauna was that of Osborn and
Lambe, On Vetebratra of the Mid-Cretaceous of the North West
Territory (1902), based chiefly on the collections in the Ottawa
Museum. The American Museum explorations under Barnum
Brown, which extended over ten years, have resulted in the
discovery of the entire fauna of the middle portion of Upper
Cretaceous time, a complete revelation especially of the dinosaur
world as it approached the height of its adaptive radiation into
herbivorous and carnivorous, armoured and defenceless, swift-
moving and slow-moving types, which severally imitate more or
less fully the long subsequent adaptive radiation of the mammals.
In 1914 the Canadians renewed exploration, so that at present
the Ottawa and Toronto Museums have rich collections, part
of which has been described by the late Lawrence M. Lambe,
while Osborn, Barnum Brown and W. A. Parks have also made
known a part of this wonderful fauna. Two of the greatest
extremes of adaptation, namely, Dcinodon or Gorgosaurus and
Strulhiomimus, are figured in the accompanying Plate II. In
the same plate appear some of the outstanding American dis-
coveries of the decade.

NEW DISCOVERIES AMONG FOSSIL VERTEBRATES

Fossil 'Fishes. Dr. A. Smith Woodward's Fossil Fishes of the
English Wealden and Purbeck (1915-8) is a beautifully illustrated
memoir of the most thorough, systematic type, well sustaining
the traditions set by Traquair and by the author himself in
earlier works. The period dealt with affords an interesting cross-
section of the stream of piscine evolution, at a time when many of
the old Mesozoic ganoids were dying out and the telcost fishes
were beginning their remarkable expansion. Other important
systematic memoirs are those by Stolley on the ganoids of the
German Muschelkalk (1920) and by Stensio (1921) on Triassic
fishes from Spitzbergen. The latter memoirs contain a wealth
of material of great morphological interest concerning the early
stages in the evolution of the skull of the fringc-fmned and ray-
finned ganoid fishes; this discussion also throws light on the origin
of certain elements in the skull of higher vertebrates. In this
connexion should be mentioned the brief but highly important
paper on Eusthenopleron by W. L. Bryant (1919). This fringe-
finned ganoid is of particular interest because the construction of
its skull and paired limbs approaches the type which may be
expected in the piscine ancestors of the land-living vertebrates.
The arrangement of the elements on the under side of the skull
of this fish raises morphological questions of wide general interest.
Papers by Watson and Day (1916) and by Gregory (1915, 1920)
deal with the ancestral relations of these fringe-finned ganoids
with the land-living vertebrates (tetrapods).

The swarming fauna of Devonian arthrodires, ptyctodonts,
cladodonts and other archaic fossil fishes from the vicinity of
Buffalo, N.Y., is ably described by Bryant and Hussakof in
their Catalog of the Fossil Fishes in the Museum of the Buffalo
Society of Natural Sciences (1918). A serious difficulty encoun-
tered by all students of recent and fossil fishes is the getting in
contact with the vast and scattered literature of the subject.
The great Bibliography of Fishes by Bashford Dean and his
associates Eastman and E. W. Gudger (1917) will undoubtedly
stimulate research in this field.

Fossil Amphibians. The outstanding publications in this
field are The Coal Measures Amphibia of North America by R. L.
Moodie (1916) and a memoir on The Structure, Evolution and
Origin of the Amphibia by D. M. S. Watson (1919). Moodie 's
memoir is a valuable description and compilation of the extensive
and varied fauna of swamp-living amphibians of the American
Coal Measures. Watson's memoir is a brilliant and highly
original contribution to the classification and phylogeny of the
labyrinthodonts. Much detailed work on fossil amphibians ap-
pears in papers by von Huene, Broom, Williston, van Hoepen,
Haughton and others.



PALAEONTOLOGY



Stem Reptiles. In the field of the oldest reptiles, those of the
Carboniferous and Permian, perhaps the most important con-
tributions are those by S. W. Williston and D. M. S. Watson.
The former, in his paper on The Phylogeny and Classification of
the Reptiles (1917), traces the rise of the common amphibian-
reptilian stock through the " Protopoda," which are so far known
only from certain footprints of Upper Devonian age. According
to Williston, who built on Osborn's system of 1903-4, the primi-
tive reptilian stock early divided into the following series:

Anapsida (Cotylosauria and their specialized descendants, the
modern tortoises and turtles).

Synapsida (Theromorpha or pelycosaurs, etc. ; Therapsida, or
mammal-like reptiles, the latter giving rise to the mammals ; plesio-
saurs).

Diapsida (reptiles with two temporal arches, such as crocodiles,
dinosaurs, rhynchocephalians; this stock gave rise to birds).

Parapsida (including the proganosaurs, ichthyosaurs, lizards,
mosasaurs, snakes).

Watson (1917), in his Sketch Classification of the Pre-Jurassic
Tetrapod Vertebrates, assigns a high value in classification to the
characters of the brain-case. A general and conservative classifi-
cation of the early reptiles is given by W. K. Gregory (1920).
The most primitive known reptile, Seymouria, from the Permo-
Carboniferous of Texas, almost bridges the gap between the
Amphibia and the Reptilia. Watson (1919) gives a morphological
description of this reptile, accompanied by valuable figures and
reconstructions of the skull and skeleton.

The habits and environments of the teeming reptilian and
amphibian faunas of the Permo-Carboniferous of North America
are intensively considered in a memoir by E. C. Case (1919), which
also deals with the stratigraphy, climatology and palaeogeog-
raphy of the late Palaeozoic.

Mammal-like Reptiles. In no other field of fossil reptiles has
the progress of discovery been more satisfactory than in that of
the mammal-like reptiles of South Africa, as set forth in numer-
ous papers, especially by Watson (1913-4), Haughton (1918),
Broom (1913-4), van Hoepen and others. The relationships of
these animals with other reptiles and with the mammals have
been reviewed by W. K. Gregory (1920-1).

Marine Reptiles. These have always been of great interest on
account of their secondary adaptations to aquatic life which have
been ably discussed by Abel (1912, 1919). One of the outstanding
contributions of new material in this field is the British Museum
Catalogue of Marine Reptiles of the Oxford Clay by C. W. Andrews
(1910-3). The origin and relationships of the plesiosaurs and
their allies are treated by von Huene (1921).

Dinosaurs. The Triassic dinosaurs of Europe are of particular
interest because some of them tend to connect the very diverse
carnivorous and herbivorous saurischian dinosaurs of later ages.
Here the leading author is F. von Huene, in a long series of papers
and memoirs. Plateosaurus, perhaps the most primitive of these
reptiles, has been fully described both by von Huene and by
Jaekel (1913-6). Primitive dinosaurs from the summit of the
Karroo series in South Africa (Gryponyx, Massospondylus, etc.)
are described by Broom and Haughton. During the long ages of
the Jurassic the gigantic sauropodous dinosaurs attained their
maximum in size and specialization. The leading feature in this
field is the description of the strange and monstrous dinosaurs
of the Tendaguru fauna of East Africa in the collections of the
Berlin Museum, by Janensch (1914). One of the most remarkable
of the North American sauropods is the genus Camarasaurus,
which has been intensively described by Osbornand Mook (1921).
Barosaurus, a gigantic relative of Diplodocus, with a tremendously
heavy neck, has been described by R. S. Lull (1919). Tyranno-
saurus, the greatest carnivorous reptile of all time, and Struthi-
omimus, a contemporaneous ostrich-like dinosaur, have been
described by Osborn (1912-9). The highly varied and grotesque
armoured dinosaurs, namely, the Ceratopsia and related groups,
have been the subject of numerous papers by Gilmore, Brown,
Lambe and others.

Pterosaurs. The pterosaurs, or flying reptiles, have continued
to excite the interest of students of flight, such as Abel (1912),
Watson and Hankin (1914), Arthaber (1921). The greatest



flying reptile, Pteranodon, is the subject of a memoir by Eaton
(1910) of Yale University.

Chelonians. An important memoir by O. Jaekel (1913-6)
describes the skull, skeleton, carapace and plastron of Triasso-
chelys dux from the Upper Triassic of Germany. Although
widely differentiated from all other orders this reptile was the
most primitive of all known chelonians. Of even greater interest
is the Eunotosaurus from the Permian of South Africa which
Watson (1914) describes as a veritable " Archichelone."

Fossil Birds. Dialryma, a gigantic ground bird from the
Lower Eocene of Wyoming, has been described by W. D. Matthew
and W. Granger (1917) from a nearly complete skeleton, which
is a most rare and valuable fossil. This bird, which has no near
relatives, was about seven feet high and of massive proportions,
with an enormous head and great compressed beak. The wings
were vestigial. This high degree of specialization at such an early
epoch indicates that the modernized groups of birds were differ-
'entiated during the latter part of the Age of Reptiles.

Monographs on Special Groups of Tertiary Mammals. The
fossil mammals of the basal and Lower Eocene of the western
United States are represented in the American Museum of
Natural History by collections numbering many thousands of
specimens which are being described jointly by Matthew and
Granger (1915). Besides describing many new or little known
forms these authors also deal with the relationships and mor-
phology of the various groups of early placental mammals. In
the paper dealing with the edentates and their relatives, the
" palaeanodonts," Matthew (1918) advances the view that the
modern Pholidota (Pangolins) are an offshoot of the primitive
" palaeanodonts " of the Lower Eocene. Other papers of the
same series cover the Creodonts, Insectivores, Primates and
Condylarths.

Several mid-Tertiary mammalian groups, such as chalicotheres,
entelodonts and the diceratheres, have been revised in the publica-
tions of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, by W. J. Holland and
by O. A. Peterson.

Baluchitherium, perhaps the most gigantic land mammal of
all time, has been described by C. Forster-Cooper (1913) from a
huge atlas, astragalus, cervical vertebrae and limb bones from
the Upper Oligocene deposits of the Bugti Hills of Baluchistan.

The evolution of the Sirenia is treated by Abel (1921) and by
Deperet (1920); that of the Cetacea by Abel (1919) and by
Winge (1918-21). The phylogeny and evolution of the Pro-
boscidea are considered in the researches by Schlesinger (^917),
Matsumoto (1915) and Osborn (1918-21). The Eocene and
Oligocene titanotheres have been dealt with in numerous papers
by Osborn in preparation for his monograph on these extinct
animals. The revision of the mid-Tertiary Equidae by Osborn
(1918) affords an exceptionally full document on the exact course
of evolution in the multitudinous phyla of a typical mammalian
family. A most valuable expansion of our knowledge of the
anthropoid apes of the mid-Tertiary is found in the work of
Pilgrim (1915) on the fossil apes of India of the genera Dryopi-
thecus and Sivapithecus.

South American Fossil Mammals. The strange offshoots of
the ungulate and edentate orders which swarmed in Patagonia
during the mid-Tertiary and Pleistocene times are treated in the
excellent memoirs of the Princeton University Patagonian expedi-
tions by W. B. Scott. Herluf Winge has admirably monographed
the fossil and recent edentates of Brazil. The mammalian fauna
of the Deseado formations is described by F. B. Loomis of Am-
herst College. These and other investigations are correcting the
erroneous correlations by Ameghino, in which the older mammal-
bearing horizons of Patagonia were assigned to the Cretaceous.
This more modern work indicates that the Pyrotherium beds are
not older than Upper Eocene and that the Santa Cruz formation
is of Lower Miocene Age.

The Pleistocene fauna of Tarija, Bolivia, is the subject of a
beautiful memoir by Boule and Thevenin (1920), in which the
anatomy and relationships of " Mastodon " andium and of the
highly specialized horses Hippidium and Onohippidium are
treated.



i6



PALESTINE



Pleistocene Mammalian Faunas (North America, Europe).
The Pleistocene represents the climax of the Age of Mammals in
point of differentiation and richness of mammalian faunas. In
Europe the Pleistocene faunas have been the subject of memoirs
by Boule, Schoetensack and many others. In North America we
have the teeming fauna of the Rancho La Brea, California, de-
scribed'by Merriam, Stock and their colleagues of the university
of California. The correlation of the American Pleistocene faunas
has been treated especially by Osborn and by Hay.

In the preparation of this article the writer is especially indebted
for the entire invertebrate section to the cooperation of Miss Mar-
jorie O'Connell, who has summarized the chief discoveries in Pre-
and Postcambrian time and given a review of the outstanding
literature in the invertebrate field. He is also indebted to Charles
D. Walcott, chief authority on Cambrian and Precambrian life of
the world, 'for the type figures assembled in Plate I.; to Curators
Matthew and Gregory of the American Museum for a revision of the
text relating to the evolution of the vertebrates; and to the President
and Trustees of the American Museum for permission to reproduce
the photographs which are assembled to the same scale on Plate II.'

(H. F. O.)

PALESTINE (see 20.600). During the earlier years of the
decade 1911-21 little of importance occurred in that country.
Afflicted by the economic stagnation and financial strain which
affected the whole Ottoman Empire in consequence of the war
with Italy (191 1-2), and the war with the Balkan States (191 2-3),
Palestine was unable to develop herself in any way before the
outbreak of the World War in 1914. Yet to a section of her
population the decision of the Palestinian Jews, in the autumn
of 1913, to reject German and insist upon Hebrew as the language
of instruction and to secede from the Hilfsverein and set up
schools of their own, was momentous. The outbreak of the
World War, besides leading to a renewed blockade of the coast,
and fresh military requisitions, also involved the expulsion or
internment of numerous ecclesiastics and laymen of Entente
nationalities and the deportation of numbers of Jews. It was
followed at the beginning of 1915 by one of the most destructive
visitations of locusts recorded for a generation. Thereafter until
the arrival of the British army in the autumn of 1917 the pros-
perity of the whole country slowly withered under the crushing
burden of the war.

At the time of the British occupation of Jerusalem in Dec. 1917
the economic situation of southern Palestine was bad. Not only
had the Turks requisitioned far and wide without repayment, or
against inadequate payment, but they had cut down numbers of
olives and revenue-producing trees and carried off the greater
part of the agricultural and draught animals. The paper cur-
rency had depreciated some 84% and was no longer accepted by
the producing, classes mostly outlying Moslem peasants who
would only discover their concealed stores of grain for gold.
The civil population of Jerusalem, dependent ordinarily upon
the pilgrim traffic or upon the offerings of pious Jews for its
livelihood, was emaciated and reduced by starvation. The only
products which Jerusalem had to sell were designed for the
pilgrim trade and were unmarketable; consequently at the
beginning of the occupation many shops were able to offer only
cigarettes, picture-postcards and wild radishes for sale.

In view of this it was urgently necessary to provide food for the
exhausted inhabitants of Jerusalem and Palestine, to provide
work for the purpose of enabling them to earn money with which
to pay for the food, and to re-start trade in order that the mer-
cantile community should have something to barter against the
gold hoarded by the peasantry and thus make it worth the
peasant's while to cultivate and market his produce as he had
for some time past realized that his gold was unable to buy the
trade goods he required. But there were grave difficulties the
single line of railway by which alone food or trade goods could
be brought from Egypt was very fully occupied with the para-
mount needs of the army. The daily tonnage of supplies alone
not including munitions or transport of men or guns varied
from 800 to 2,300. Ammunition was of ten. 2 50 tons per day.
The civilian population was unaccustomed to the Egyptian
currency and more than suspicious of paper money, and Egyptian
silver put into circulation was at once hoarded against the prox-



imate return of the Turks, which was confidently predicted by
enemy sympathizers who further assured every one that the
Egyptian paper pound at par was worth no more than the de-
preciated Turkish paper lira and offered to prove it by readily
exchanging Turkish for Egyptian pounds whenever possible
at a profit to themselves of 173. 7d. on each deal. Yet without
money the civilians could not buy food, without food they could
scarcely walk from weakness, and there was every prospect
of the establishment of a vicious circle.

Brig.-Gen. G. F. Clayton (afterwards Sir Gilbert Clayton),
chief political officer to Gen. Allenby, was appointed chief ad-
ministrator and began to construct such a form of government
as is provided for in " The Laws and Usages of War " laid down
by international agreements embodied in the Hague Convention.
Transport for a few truck-loads of foodstuffs per week was
secured from the military railway, and lorries brought it to
Jerusalem until the army was able to reopen the narrow-gauge
line from Ludd to the Holy City. Then a small consignment of
trade goods came up from Egypt and merchants were permitted
to import small quantities from Egypt independently of the
over-burthened railway. The labour corps employed numerous
civilians, paying them at first daily in Egyptian silver and paper,
and then weekly in cash or kind at the choice of the labourer.
In this way the new currency came to its own, helped by the
stringent measures taken by the military administration to
suppress trafficking in or artificial depreciation of Egyptian
paper. With the arrival of trade goods in the towns the peasants
began to spend their gold and sell their produce so freely that it
became unnecessary to import so much food and more accom-
modation thus became available for other merchandise. But
even so, 900 tons of cereals had to be imported monthly for the
use of refugees alone. Gen. Clayton took other steps to restore
public confidence and reestablish the amenities of civilization.
Bazaar gossip and rumour which for some weeks was hostile
to the British was counteracted by the publication of Arabic
and Hebrew editions of the newspaper, The Palestine News,
which had been started by the army in March 1915, and inter-
course with the greater part of the world was rendered possible
by the restoration of the postal service, for which special stamps
for the use of the civilian population began to be issued on Feb. 16
1918. Steps were taken to reassure the Moslems, who were much
alarmed at reports sedulously propagated by the enemy, that all
land was to be given to the Jews, and resident British officers
were appointed to administer the various kazas of the old Turkish
regime. Thus military governors were established at Gaza, with
a deputy at Mejdel; at Jaffa, with a deputy at Ramleh; at
Beersheba; at Hebron, with a deputy at Deir Aban; and at
Jerusalem, with deputies at Bethlehem, Jericho and Ramalla.
At first the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (" O.E.-
T.A.") was at Bir Salem, near Ramleh, the general headquarters
of the army, but later when it became impossible for Gen. Clay-
ton any longer to combine O.E.T.A. with the work of the political
mission, Maj.-Gen. Sir Arthur W. Money was appointed chief
administrator in April 191 8, and he removed the administration to
the imposing and convenient Empress Victoria Hospice built
by the Germans on the Mount of Olives just before the war.
In March the country had so far recovered that it became possible
to collect taxes once more, in May public confidence was greatly