1







LS-7



BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.






t 1 I ' V
AN AGAPE

OR LOVE FEAST AMONG THE EARLY CHRISTIANS
After painting, by J. A. MAGEROLLE



BEACON
LIGHTS ?r.
HISTORY



BY JOHN LORD, LLD.



THE WORLD'S HEROES
AND MASTER MINDS



NEW YORK
JAMES CLARKE & COMPANY




LORD'S LECTURES



BEACON LIGHTS

OF HISTORY.

BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.,

AUTHOR OF " THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," " MODERN EUROPE/
ETC., ETC.



VOLUME IV.

IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY.



NEW YOKK:
JAMES CLARKE AND CO.



Copyright, 188S, 1S86,

BY JOHN LORD.



VOL. IV.
IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY.



CONTENTS



CYRUS THE GREAT.
ASIATIC SUPREMACY.

PAGE

The Persian Empire 27

Persia Proper ,,...,..... 28

Origin of the Persians 31

The Religion of the Iranians ..32

Persian Civilization 34

Persian rulers 37

Youth and education of Cyrus 38

Political Union of Persia and Media 41

The Median Empire 42

Early Conquests of Cyrus 44

The Lydian Empire 45

Croesus, King of Lydia 46

War between Croesus and Cyrus 47

Fate of Croesus 49

Conquest of the Ionian Cities 50

Conquest of Babylon 52

Assyria and Babylonia 55

Subsequent conquests of Cyrus 56

His kindness to the Jews 57

Character of Cyrus 58



16 CONTENTS.



turn

Cambyses; Darius Hystaspes 60

Xerxes 61

Fall of the Persian Empire 61

Authorities 62

JULIUS t\ESA2t.
IMPERIALISM.

Cjesar an instrument of Providence 65-67

His family and person 68

Early manhood ; marriage ; profession ; ambition ... 69

Curule magistrates ; the Roman Senate 70

Only rich men who control elections ordinarily elected . . 71

Venality of the people 72

Caesar borrows money to bribe the people 73

Elected Quaestor 73

Gains a seat in the Senate 74

Second marriage, with a cousin of Pompey 74

Caesar made Pontifex Maximus ; elected Prajtor .... 74

Sent to Spain ; military services in Spain 74

Elected Consul; his reforms ; Leges Julias 75

Opposition of the Aristocracy 76

Assigned to the province of Gaul 78

His victories over the Gauls and Germans 79

Character of the races he subdued 80

Amazing difficulties of his campaigns 81,82

Reluctance of the Senate to give him the customary honor . 83
Jealousy of the noblns ; hostility between them and C.tsar 84
The Aristocracy unfit to govern ; their habits and man-
ners 8/J-87

They call Pompey to their aid 88

Neither Pompey nor Caesar will disband his forces ; Caesar

recalled 88

Caesar marches on Rome ; crosses the Rubicon .... 89



CONTENTS. 17



PAGE

Ultimate ends of Caesar ; the civil war 90

Pompey's incapacity and indecision ; flies to Brundusi . . 91

Caesar defeats Pompey's generals in Spain 92

Dictatorship of Csesar 93

Battle of Pharsalia 93

Death of Pompey in Egypt 93

Battles of Thapsus and of Munda 94

They result in Caesar's supremacy 95

His services as Emperor 95, 96

His habits and character 97

His assassination, its consequences 98

Causes of Imperialism, its supposed necessity when Caesar

arose ; public rebuke of Caesar by Cicero 99

An historical puzzle 101

Authorities 102

MARCUS AURELIUS.
THE GLORY OF ROME.

Remarkable character of Marcus Aurelius 105

His parentage and education 106

Adopted by Antoninus Pius 107

Subdues the barbarians of Germany 108

Consequences of the German Wars 109

Mistakes of Marcus Aurelius ; Commodus 110

Persecutions of the Christians Ill, 112

The " Meditations," their sublime Stoicism 113

Epictetus, the influence of his writings .... 114-119

Style and value of the " Meditations " 120

Necessities of the Empire 121

Its prosperity under the Antonines; external glories . 122-126

Its internal weakness ; seeds of ruin 127-132

Gibbon controverted by Marcus Aurelius 133

Authorities . 133



18 CONTENTS.



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.

CHRISTIANITY ENTHRONED.

PAOI
Constantine and Diocletian 137, 138

Influence of martyrdoms 139

Influence of Asceticism, its fierce protest . . . 140-142

Rise of Constautine 143

His civil wars for the supremacy of the Roman world . . 144
The rival Emperors and their fate : Maximinian, Galerius,

Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius 145, 146

Constantine sole Emperor over the West and East . . . 147
Foundation of Constantinople, its great advantage . . 148
The pomp and ceremony of the imperial Court . . . . 149

Crimes of Constantine ; his virtues 150

Conversion of Constantine 151, 152

His Christian legislation; edict of Toleration 153

Patronage of the Clergy ; union of Church and State . . 154

Council of Nice 155

Theological discussion 156

Doctrine of the Trinity 157

Athanasius and Arius 158-161

The Nicene Creed 162, 163

Effect of philosophical discussions on theological truths 164, 165
Constantino's work ; the uniting of Church with State . . 166

Death of Constantine 166

His character and services 167, 168

Authorities 169

PAULA.

WOMAN AS FRIEND.

Female friendship 173

Paganism unfavorable to friendship 174

Character of .Jewish women . .... 175



CONTENTS. 19



PAGE

Great Pagan women 176

Paula, her early life 177

Her conversion to Christianity 178

Her asceticism 179

Asceticism the result of circumstances 180

Virtues of Paula 181

Her illustrious friends 182

Saint Jerome and his great attainments 183

His friendship with Paula 184

His social influence at Rome 185

His treatment of women 186

Vanity of mere worldly friendship 187

./Esthetic mission of woman 188

Elements of permanent friendship 189

Necessity of social equality 190

Illustrious friendships 191

Congenial tastes in friendship 192

Necessity of Christian graces 193

Sympathy as radiating from the Cross 194

Necessity of some common end in friendship 195

The extension of monastic life 196

Virtues of early monastic life 197

Paula and Jerome seek its retreats . 198

Their residence in Palestine 199

Their travels in the East 200

Their illustrious visitors 201

Peculiarities of their friendship 202

Death of Paula 203

Her character and fame 205

Elevation of woman by friendship 207



20 CONTENTS.



CHRYSOSTOM.

SACRED ELOQUENCE.

PAM

The power of the Pulpit 211

Eloquence always a power 212

The superiority of the Christian themes to those of Pagan

antiquity 213-215

Sadness of the great Pagan orators 216

Cheerfulness of the Christian preachers 217

Chrysostom 218

Education 219

Society of the times 220

Chrysostom's conversion, and life in retirement . . 221, 222

Life at Antioch 223

Characteristics of his eloquence ; his popularity as orator . 224

His influence 225-227

Shelters Antioch from the wrath of Theodosius .... 228

Power and responsibility of the clergy 229, 230

Transferred to Constantinople, as Patriarch of the East . 231

His sermons, and their effect at Court 232-234

Quarrel with Eutropius 235-236

Envy of Theophilus of Alexandria 237

Council of the Oaks ; condemnation to exile 238

Sustained by the people ; recalled 239

Wrath of the Empress 239

Exile of Chrysostom 240

His literary labors in exile 240

His more remote exile, and death 241

His fame and influence 242

Authorities . 243



CONTENTS. 21



SAINT AMBROSE.
EPISCOPAL AUTHORITY.

PAOI

Dignity of the Episcopal office in the early Church . . . 247
Growth of Episcopal authority, its causes . . . 248-251
The See of Milan ; election of Ambrose as Archbishop . . 252
His early life and character ; his great ability . . . 253-255

Change in his life after consecration 256

His conservation of the Faith 257, 258

Persecution of the Manicheans 259

Opposition to the Arians 259, 260

His enemies ; Faustina 261

Quarrel with the Empress 262

Establishment of Spiritual Authority 263

Opposition to Temporal Power 265

Ambrose retires to his cathedral; Ambrosian chant . 266-268
Rebellion of Soldiers ; triumph of Ambrose . . . 268-271
Sent as Ambassador to Maximus; his intrepidity . 272, 273
His rebuke of Theodosius ; penance of the Emperor . 274-276

Fidelity and ability of Ambrose as Bishop 277

His private virtues 278, 279

His influence on succeeding ages 280

Authorities 280

SAINT AUGUSTINE.
CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.

Lofty position of Augustine in the Church 283

Parentage and birth 284

Education and youthful follies 285

Influence of the Manicheans on him 286-288

Teacher of rhetoric 289

Visits Rome 290

Teaches rhetoric at Milan 291



22 CONTENTS.



PAOB

Influence of Ambrose on him 291

Conversion; Christian experience 292, 293

Retreat to Lake Cotno 294

Death of Monica his mother 295

Hi-turn to Africa 295

Made Bishop of Hippo; his influence as Bishop .... 296
His greatness as a theologian ; his vast studies .... 297
Contest with Manicheans, their character and teach-
ings 298

Controversy with the Donatists, their peculiarities . . 299
Tracts: Unity of the Church and Religious Toleration 301, 302
Contest with the Pelagians : Pelagius and Celestius . 303-306

Principles of Pelagianism 307-309

Doctrines of Augustine : Grace ; Predestination ; Sover-
eignty of God ; Servitude of the Will 310

Results of the Pelagian controversy 312

Other writings of Augustine : " The City of God; " Solilo-
quies; Sermons 313-315

Death and character 316

Eulogists of Augustine 317

His posthumous influence 318

Authorities 318

THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
LATTER DAYS OK ROME.

The mission of Theodosius 321

General sense of security in the Roman world . . . 322-324

The Romans awake from their delusion 325

Incursions of the. Goths 326

Buttle of Adrianople; death of Valens 327

Necessity for a great deliverer to arise; Theodosius . 327-328
The Goths, their characteristics and history . . 329-331
Elevation of Theodosius as Associate Emperor .... 332



CONTENTS. 23



PAOK
He conciliates the Goths, and permits them to settle in the

Empire 333, 334

Revolt of Maximus against Gratian ; death of Gratian . . 335
Theodosius marches against Maximus and subdues him . 336

Revolt of Arbogastes, his usurpation 337

Victories of Theodosius over all his rivals ; the Empire once

more united under a single man 337

Reforms of Theodosius ; his jurisprudence 338

Patronage of the clergy and dignity of great ecclesiastics . 339

Theodosius persecutes the Arians 340, 341

Extinguishes Paganism and closes the temples . . . 342, 343

Cements the union of Church with State 344

Faults and errors of Theodosius ; massacre of Thessalonica 345

Death of Theodosius 346

Division of the Empire between his two sons 346

Renewed incursions of the Goths, Alaric ; Stilicho . . 347
Fall of Rome; Gen seric and the Vandals .... 348,349

Second sack of Rome 350

Reflections on the Fall of the Western Empire . . . 351-355
Authorities 355

LEO THE GREAT.
FOUNDATION OF THE PAPACY.

Leo the Great, founder of the Catholic Empire . . . 359

General aim of the Catholic Church 360

The Church the guardian of spiritual principles .... 361

Theocratic aspirations of the Popes 361

Origin of ecclesiastical power ; the early Popes . . . . 362

Primacy of the Bishop of Rome 363, 364

Necessity for some higher claim after the fall of Rome 365, 366

Early life of Leo 367

Elevation to the Papacy ; his measures ; his writings . . 368
His persecution of the Manicheans 368



24 CONTENTS.



PAGE

Conservation of the Faith by Leo 369,371

Intercession with the barbaric kings ; Leo's intrepidity 374, 375

Desolation of Rome 376

Designs and thoughts of Leo 377,378

The jus dii-inum principle; state of Rome when this prin-
ciple was advocated 379

Its apparent necessity 380

The influence of arrogant pretensions on the barbarians . 381

They are indorsed by the Emperor 382

The government of Leo 383

The central power of the Papacy 384

Unity of the Church 385

No rules of government laid down in the Scriptures . . . 38G

Governments the result of circumstances 387

The Papal government the need of the Middle Ages 388, 390

The Papacy in its best period 391, 392

Greatness of Leo's character and aims 393, 394

Fidelity of his early successors, and perversions of later

Popes 395, 396

Authorities . 397



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOLUME IV.

PACK
An Agape or Christian Love Feast Frontispiece

Julius Caesar 68

Death of Csesar 98

Marcus Aurelius 130

Baptism of Constantino 152

St. Jerome 184

St. Chrysostom 224

Church of St. Ambrose 264

St. Augustine and his Mother 292

Rome, from Trinita de' Monti 332

Leo I. entering Rome 376



CYRUS THE GREAT.

ASIATIC SUPREMACY.



BEACON LIGHTS.



CYRUS THE GREAT.



ASIATIC SUPREMACY.

of the most prominent and romantic charac-
ters in the history of the Oriental world, before
its conquest by Alexander of Macedon, is Cyrus the
Great ; not as a sage or prophet, not as the founder of
new religious systems, not even as a law-giver, but as
the founder and organizer of the greatest empire the
world has seen, next to that of the Romans. The ter-
ritory over which Cyrus bore rule extended nearly
three thousand miles from east to west, and fifteen
hundred miles from north to south, embracing the
principal nations known to antiquity, so that he was
really a king of kings. He was practically the last of
the great Asiatic emperors, absorbing in his dominions
those acquired by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and
the Lydians. He was also the first who brought Asia
into intimate contact with Europe and its influences,



28 CYRUS THE GREAT.

and thus may be regarded as the link between the old
Oriental world and the Greek civilization.

It is to be regretted that so little is really known
of the Persian hero, both in the matter of events
and also of exact dates, since chronologists differ, and
can only approximate to the truth in their calcula-
tions. In this lecture, which is in some respects an
introduction to those that will follow on the heroes
and sages of Greek, Roman, and Christian antiquity,
it is of more importance to present Oriental coun-
tries and institutions than any particular character,
interesting as he may be, especially since as to bi-
ography one is obliged to sift historical facts from
a great mass of fables and speculations.

Neither Herodotus, Xenophon, nor Ctesias satisfy us
as to the real life and character of Cyrus. This re-
nowned name represents, however, the Persian power,
the last of the great monarchies that ruled the Ori-
ental world until its conquest by the Greeks. Persia
came suddenly into prominence in the middle of the
seventh century before Christ. Prior to this time it
was comparatively unknown and unimportant, and was
one of the dependent provinces of Media, whose re-
ligion, language, and customs were not very dissimi-
lar to its own.

Persia was a small, rocky, hilly, arid country about
three hundred miles long by two hundred and fifty



ASIATIC SUPREMACY. 29

wide, situated south of Media, having the Persian Gulf
as its southern boundary, the Zagros Mountains on
the west separating it from Babylonia, and a great
and almost impassable desert on the east, so that it
was easily defended. Its population was composed of
hardy, warlike, and religious people, condemned to
poverty and incessant toil by the difficulty of getting
a living on sterile and unproductive hills, except in a
few favored localities. The climate was warm in sum-
mer and cold in winter, but on the whole more tem-
perate than might be supposed from a region situated
so near the tropics, between the twenty-fifth and
thirtieth degrees of latitude. It was an elevated
country, more than three thousand feet above the sea,
and was favorable to the cultivation of the fruits and
flowers that have ever been most prized, those cereals
which constitute the ordinary food of man growing in
abundance if sufficient labor were spent on their culti-
vation, reminding us of Switzerland and New England.
But vigilance and incessant toil were necessary, such
as are only found among a hardy and courageous peas-
antry, turning easily from agricultural labors to the
fatigues and dangers of war. The real wealth of the
country was in the flocks and herds that browsed in
the valleys and plains. Game of all kinds was abun-
dant, so that the people were unusually fond of the
pleasures of the chase; and as they were temperate,



30 CYRUS THE GREAT.

inured to exposure, frugal, and adventurous, they mniie
excellent soldiers. Nor did they ever as a nation lose
their warlike qualities, it being only the rich and
powerful among them who learned the vices of the
nations they subdued, and became addicted to luxury,
indolence, and self-indulgence. Before the conquest
of Media the whole nation was distinguished for
temperance, frugality, and bravery. According to He-
rodotus, the Persians were especially instructed in
three things, " to ride, to draw the bow, and to
speak the truth." Their moral virtues were as con-
spicuous as their warlike qualities. They were so
poor that their ordinary dress was of leather. They
could boast of no large city, like the Median Ecbatana,
or like Babylon, Pasargadce, their ancient capital,
being comparatively small and deficient in architec-
tural monuments. The people lived chiefly in villages
and hamlets, and were governed, like the Israelites
under the Judges, by independent chieftains, none of
whom attained the rank and power of kings until
about one hundred years before the birth of Cyrus.
These pastoral and hunting people, frugal from neces-
sity, brave from exposure, industrious from the diffi-
culty of subsisting in a dry and barren country, for
the most sort were just such a race as furnished a
noble material for the foundation of a great empire.
Whence came this honest, truthful, thrifty race ? It



ASIATIC SUPREMACY. 31

is generally admitted that it was a branch of the great
Aryan family, whose original settlements are supposed
to have been on the high table-lands of Central Asia
east of the Caspian Sea, probably in Bactria. They
emigrated from that dreary and inhospitable country
after Zoroaster had proclaimed his doctrines, after the
sacred hymns called the Gathas were sung, perhaps
even after the Zend-Avesta or sacred writings of the
Zoroastrian priests had been begun, conquering or
driving away Turanian tribes, and migrating to the
southwest in search of more fruitful fields and fertile
valleys, they found a region which has ever since
borne a name Iran that evidently commemorated
the proud title of the Aryan race. And this great
movement took place about the time that another
branch of their race also migrated southeastwardly to
the valleys of the Indus. The Persians and the Hin-
dus therefore had common ancestors, the same in-
deed, as those of the Greeks, Eomans, Sclavonians,
Celts, and Teutons, who migrated to the northwest
and settled in Europe. The Aryans in all their
branches were the noblest of the primitive races, and
have in their later developments produced the high-
est civilization ever attained. They all had similar
elements of character, especially love of personal inde-
pendence, respect for woman, and a religious tendency
of mind. We see a considerable similarity of habits



82 CYRUS THE GREAT.

and customs between the Teutonic races of Germany
and Scandinavia and the early inhabitants of Persia,
as well as great affinity in language. All branches
of the Aryan family have been warlike and adven-
turous, if we may except the Hindus, who were sub-
jected to different influences, especially of climate,
which enervated their bodies if it did not weaken
their minds.

When the migration of the Iranians took place it is
difficult to determine, but probably between fifteen
hundred and two thousand years before our era,
although it may have been even five hundred years
earlier than that. All theories as to their movements
before their authentic history begins are based on con-
jecture and speculation, which it is not profitable to
pursue, since we can settle nothing in the present state
of our knowledge.

It is very singular that the Iranians should have
had, after their migrations and settlements, religious
ideas and systems so different from those of the Hindus,
considering that they had common ancestors. The
Iranians, including the Medes as well as Persians,
accepted Zoroaster as their prophet and teacher, and
the Zend-Avesta as their sacred books, and worshipped
one Supreme Deity, whom they called Ahura-Mazda
(Ormazd), the Lord Omniscient, and thus were
monotheists; while the Hindus were practically poly-



ASIATIC SUPREMACY. 33

theists, governed by a sacerdotal caste, who imposed
gloomy austerities and sacrifices, although it would
seem that the older Vedistic hymns of the Hindus were
theistic in spirit. The Magi the priests of the Ira-
nians differed widely in their religious views from
the Brahmans, inculcating a higher morality and a
loftier theological creed, worshipping the Supreme Be-
ing without temples or shrines or images, although
their religion ultimately degenerated into a worship
of the powers of Nature, as the recognition of Mithra
the sun-god and the mysterious fire-altars would seem to
indicate. But even in spite of the corruptions intro-
duced by the Magi when they became a powerful sacer-
dotal body, their doctrine remained purer and more
elevated than the religions of the surrounding nations.

While the Iranians worshipped a supreme deity of
goodness, they also recognized a supreme deity of evil,
both ruling the world in perpetual conflict by
unnumbered angels, good and evil; but the final tri-
umph of the good was a conspicuous article of their
faith. In close logical connection with this recogni-
tion of a supreme power in the universe was the belief
of a future state and of future rewards and punish-
ments, without which belief there can be, in my opin-
ion, no high morality, as men are constituted.

In process of time the priests of the Zoroastrian faith
became unduly powerful, and enslaved the people by



34 CYRUS THE GREAT.

many superstitions, such as the multiplication of rites
and ceremonies and the interpretation of dreams and
omens. They united spiritual with temporal authority,
as a powerful priesthood is apt to do, a fact which
the Christian priesthood of the Middle Ages made
evident in the Occidental world.

In the time of Cyrus the Magi had become a sort of
sacerdotal caste. They were the trusted ministers of
kings, and exercised a controlling influence over the
people. They assumed a stately air, wore white and
flowing robes, and were adepts in the arts of sor-
cery and magic. They were even consulted by kings
and chieftains, as if they possessed prophetic power
They were a picturesque body of men, with their mystic
wands, their impressive robes, their tall caps, appealing
by their long incantations and frequent ceremonies and
prayers to the eye and to the ear. " Pure Zoroastrian-
ism was too spiritual to coalesce readily with Oriental
luxury and magnificence when the Persians were rulers
of a vast empire, but Magism furnished a hierarchy to
support the throne and add splendor and dignity to the
court, while it blended easily with previous creeds."

In material civilization the Modes and Persians were
inferior to the Babylonians and Egyptians, and immeas-
urably behind the Greeks and Eomans. Their archi-
tecture was not so imposing as that of the Egyptians
and Babylonians ; it had no striking originality, and it



ASIATIC SUPREMACY. 35

was only in the palaces of great monarchs that any-
thing approached magnificence. Still, there were fa-
mous palaces at Ecbatana, Susa, and Persepolis, raised
on lofty platforms, reached by grand staircases, and
ornamented with elaborate pillars. The most splendid
of these were erected after the time of Cyrus, by
Darius and Xerxes, decorated with carpets, hangings,
and golden ornaments. The halls of their palaces were
of great size and imposing effect. Next to palaces, the
most remarkable buildings were the tombs of kings ;
but we have no remains of marble statues or metal
castings or ivory carvings, not even of potteries, which
at that time in other countries were common and beau-
tiful. The gems and signet rings which the Persians
engraved possessed much merit, and on them were
wrought with great skill the figures of men and animals ;
but the nearest approach to sculpture were the figures
of colossal bulls set to guard the portals of palaces, and
these were probably borrowed from the Assyrians.

Nor were the Persians celebrated for their textile
fabrics and dyes. " So long as the carpets of Babylon,
the shawls of India, the fine linen of Egypt, and the
coverlets of Damascus poured continually into Persia
in the way of tribute and gifts, there was no stimulus
to manufacture." The same may be said of the orna-