LB
2805
School flrJTTiini f.-
Southern Branch
of the
University of California
Los Angeles
Form L I
LB
2805
P95
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below
' FEB 2 5 1925
*^^^ 6 1926
^^ 2 I92g-
tl
' 7
SCHOOL IDilllSTRlTlOl
including the
Organization and Supervision
of Schools
by
John T. Prince, Ph. D.
Author of Courses of Studies and Methods of Teaching ; Methods
of Instruction and Organization of the Schools of Germany, etc.
/ (a ^ ^ ^
SYRACUSE, N. Y.
C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher
Copyright, 1906, by C. W. Bardeen
7^ o v. J^o 7
PREFACE
American conditions do not seem to favor an easy,
simple and effective administration of schools. Among
the adverse conditions existing in many places are: (1)
an overpowering sentiment in favor of local self-
government and a strong opposition to centralization of
, any kind; (2) a non-recognition by the people of the need
V of professional knowledge and skill in carrying on the
V3 schools; (3) a tendency to adopt political methods in
vN) the election of school officials as well as in matters
of school control; (4) the comparatively short terms of
""â– ^ administrative offices and the frequent changes of
membership in them; (5) the large extent of sparsely
V. inhabited regions and the consequent difficulties of
school attendance and classification; and (6) the dif-
ference of financial ability in the various sections of a
^ State and the variety of needs to be met. Such condi-
"\ tions as these are likely to foster mistakes of adminis-
\ tration which can be avoided only by the greatest care
^
and effort.
Among the mistakes of school administration act-
ually existing in this country may be mentioned first
the tendency of over organization in which the atten-
tion of the workers is turned away from the product to
the machinery which turns it out. Again there is the
other extreme of a lack of organization by which the
time and effort of school officials are wasted. But
more frequently perhaps than all else is the loose or-
ganization by which the duties of school officials over-
lap one another, frequently resulting in confusion and
friction of a serious kind.
In matters of school supervision also there is the
same tendency to extremes of practice which exists in
vi Preface
school organization — the over-supervision on the one
hand which takes away the original freedom and orig-
inality of the teachers, and the absence of supervision
on the other which gives an opportunity for teachers to
carry out in questionable ways the lowest ends of edu-
cation and which gives no encouragement or support
to teachers who are striving to attain the highest ends.
It is difficulties like these which this book is intend-
ed to meet. It is not expected that theories of admin-
istration can be applied everywhere exactly as they are
here given; but it is hoped that their presentation
will be of substantial assistance to members of
School Boards, Superintendents and Principals of
schools, as well as to professional students of educa-
tion in Colleges and Normal Schools.
It should be said that many of the recommeded
plans and outlines are simply a transcript of existing
practices. Full credit, however , could not be given in
all cases because of the changes in them which were
thought desirable to make and because of the fact that
in a few instances the authorship was unknown.
CONTENTS
CHAPTEE PAGE
I The Nature and Source of School Organi-
zation 1
II Legislative Provisions respecting the Organ-
ization of Schools 6
III State Administration of Schools 21
IV City and Town Administration of Schools.. 32
V District and County Administration of
Schools 52
VI The Superintendent as Organizer 59
VII The Superintendent as Supervisor 150
VIII The Superintendent and Community Inter-
ests 181
IX The Principal as Organizer and Supervisor 187
X The Teacher as Organizer 202
XI Schools for Defectives and Delinquents 220
Xir Records and Reports 226
APPENDIXES
A The Evolution of School Supervision 247
B The Supervision of Rural Schools 265
C Consolidation of Rural Schools 272
D School Revenues and their Distribution 283
E Special Schools and Classes 290
E School Hygiene 298
G General Plan of Studies for Elementary
Schools 361
H Plans of Studies for High Schools 404
School Organization and Supervision
CHAPTER I
/ c^s z^
THE NATURE AND SOURCE OF SCHOOL ORGANI-
ZATION
The organs comprising a system of educa-
tion are the essential means or instruments by
which the work of education is done — the or-
ganization becoming more and more complex as
the system extends in function or in the number tion.
of pupils reached. A school of one pupil with
one subject of instruction must have its organi-
zation no less than a system of many schools
with a large number of subjects. The place
and means of instruction must be provided even
though they be only Garfield's well-known log
with a teacher at one end of it. The reach
from such an organization to the organization
needed for a city system is very great, and yet
in these extremes of conditions and in all the in-
termediate points, a choice of means must be
made; and it will be found that that organiza-
tion is most effective in which each part or The most
organ is best suited to perform its particular ^'^^^^^^f or-
function with reference to all other functions "'
and the result to be reached.
Before considering the functions of these
organs or what the organs should be, it may be
1
ScJiOol Organization arid Supervision
Protection of
schools
against parti-
sanship and
sectarianism.
The adjust-
ment of local
and central au-
thority.
well to refer briefly to the power which lies be-
hind the organization and which is alike its
source and defence. This power is the will of
the people as expressed in the constitution and
laws of the state. In the constitution there
should be a recognition of the necessity of main-
taining free schools, and provision should be
made to protect them from the debasement of
partisanship and sectarianism. The statutes
should go further by designating certain condi-
tions and means for the establishment and
maintenance of the schools. In the creation of
offices and in the authorization of official func-
tions the utmost wisdom is needed. The foster-
ing of the people's interest in the schools and the
protection of their rights will warrant the plac-
ing of a large measure of power and responsi-
bility directly into their hands and into the
hands of local boards.
On the other hand the protection of the
schools from neglect and mistakes occasioned by
indifference or ignorance on the part of those
most directly concerned will require some cen-
tralization of power, either by restrictive legis-
lation or by the giving of authority to a central
board or commission. To what extent general
laws should be made in matters of education and
how the powers conferred upon local and state
authorities should be adjusted are difficult ques-
tions and can be determined only by principles
of wise government and by a careful considera-
tion of circumstances.
It should be borne in mind that the influence
Nature and Source of School Organization 3
of illiteracy or of poor schools extends beyond
the circle immediately concerned. What affects
for ill one part of the state affects to a greater or
less extent all other parts. If therefore a large
majority of people are desirous of maintaining a
high degree of intelligence throughout the state
they are justified, in the interests of the state
and of all the children in it, in making condi-
tions to which the minority must conform. For
this reason the state rightfully establishes a
standard of educational opportunity for children
which must be met by every town ; and lest some
of the towns may be too heavily burdened in
meeting the requirements, the state should pro-
vide for such equalization of taxation as will Equalization
enable all towns with reasonable effort to comply °* educational
with the provisions of the law. To carry out andTaxation
these beneficent ends there must be provided by
law an organization both of official functions
and of material means. Such an organization
involves questions of the adjustment of central
and local powers which are as difficult of solu-
tion as they are important.
Among the advantages of influential centrali-
zation in education may be mentioned (1) the
certainty of maintaining a high standard of ex-
cellence in the schools of all parts of the state
(2) the prevention of sudden changes of policy due
to local jealousies or to the ignorance of local offi- of centraiiza-
cials (3) needed assistance in determining the tion.
curriculum and in making a course of studies
(4) the securing of uniformly good attendance
of pupils throughout the state.
School Organization and Supervision
Advantages of
decentraliza-
tion.
Constant
changes in
systems of
education.
The advantages of centralization are positive
and apparent, but they are no more positive and
apparent than are the advantages of giving a
large degree of responsibility and power directly
to the people or of what is sometimes called de-
centralization. The chief of these advantages
are (1) the encouragement of individual interest
and effort in behalf of the schools on the part of
the people (2) the ready adaptation of means to
the peculiar needs of given localities (3) the op-
portunity for a healthy and progressive rivalry
among communities (4) the stimulus to personal
exertion and professional skill on the part of
teachers and supervisors.
It is to be expected that the organization of
any new system of schools will partake some-
what of the character of existing civil condi-
tions, and that modifications in the direction of
centralization or decentralization will be made
as the needs and the intelligence of the people de-
mand them. Thus it is that the systems of edu-
cation in Europe are highly centralized but are
changing slowly in the direction of placing the
schools in the control of the people. In this
country there is a great variety of practice, j In
some sections the direction and support of ihe
schools are largely under state control, while in
other sections a large share of their control and
financial support devolves upon the municipality.
As might be expected, a constant change is going
on in the administration of the schools of all
sections — some of the states changing in the di-
rection of local control and support and others
Nature and Source of School Organization 5
in the direction of ceDtralization, These changes
will doubtless go on until a fair balance of gen-
eral and local control is reached, when, it may
be supposed, the forms and conditions of school
administration throughout the country will be
alike in many important respects.
CHAPTER II
A suificient
number of
schools re-
quired by law.
LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS RESPECTING THE OR-
GANIZATION OF SCHOOLS
The following brief outline embraces the main
features of legislative provisions needed for the
establishment of a system of schools in which
a large measure of power- is given to the people
subject to some needed restrictive conditions:
1. The maintenance in every town and city -of a suffi-
cient number of elementary schools for all the children
of a certain school age and for a given time in the year ;
and the maintenance of high schools in cities and large
towns.
The general requirement of a "sufficient
number of schools" seems wiser than that of
designating the distance beyond which pupils
may not be obliged to walk or ride to school,
inasmuch as what might be regarded as a rea-
sonable distance under some conditions would be
under other conditions quite unreasonable. A
distance limit also might preclude towns from
furnishing free conveyance of children to the
schools as is provided in several states.*
The term " sufficient number of schools " also
has reference to efficiency as well as to con-
* For a statement as to the desirability of con-
solidating the schools and for suggestions relat-
ing to means and method of consolidation, see
Appendix C.
Legislative Provisions for Organization of Schools 7
venience. For the protection of the schools it
may be found necessary to designate by law a
maximum number of pupils for each teacher.
Some countries and states have made such a
limit, but the number in a few cases has been
placed so high as to set a wrong standard for com- "^^^^ number
... 1-1 jj.i_ -J J.- £ of pupils to a
mumties which regard the consideration or econo- teacher
my more than that of the children's welfare. In
some instances also the legal hmit is ignored in
practice. It is very important in this as well as
in other educational matters that the legal re-
quirements be kept not greatly in advance of
public sentiment.
The time during which schools should be re-
quired to be maintained will depend somewhat 15 tune ve-
^ 'â– quiiement of
upon circumstances, but 8 months would seem scho ma^^-
to be the least time for which any state should tenau.
require the schools to be kept in the year.
Similiar reasons for an indefiniteness of state-
ment may be urged respecting the legal period
of compulsory school attendance. A reasonable
regard for the welfare of the children however
would warrant the state's requiring 6 years at
least of attendance upon the schools all the time
they are in session.*
* The compulsory school attendance laws vary
considerably in the United States. In most of
the 30 states having compulsory laws children
from 8 to 14 years of age are required to attend
school for 12, 16 or 20 weeks during each year.
In some of the states the required time for school
attendance is greater — thus in Colorado, Penn-
sylvania, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and
Minnesota the required time for school attend-
8
School Organization and Supervision
High schools
to be estab-
lished by law.
In addition to the requirements respecting ele-
mentary schools, there should be provision made
by law for the establishment of high schools.
That such schools should be free and within
reach of all the children in a republic like ours
is coming to be regarded as wise and, for many
parts of the country, as feasible. They may be
required to be maintained in certain accessible
centres or they may be required in all cities and
in towns of a given size. The studies required
to be taught may be designated or there may be
a provision that the schools shall prepare pupils
for entrance to college or the higher technical
schools.*
ance is from 8 to 16 years of age with some ex-
ceptions during the last 2 years. In Massachu-
setts and New York children of compulsory age
are required to attend school all the time the
schools are in session and the schools must be
in session 32 weeks. In Germany children
are, with some limitations, obliged to attend
school for 7 and 8 years after the age of 6. In
France the compulsory age is from 6 to 13, and
in England it is from 5 to 14, For further de-
tails respecting school attendance in this and
foreign countries see Hughes's "The Making of
Citizens", pp. 134-141.
* In Massachusetts such high schools are re-
quired to be maintained in all cities and towns
containiag 500 families, and provision is made
for the children of other towns to attend some
high school at the expense either of the town in
which they live or of the state.
Several of the central and western states have
provided by law for county high schools to be
Legislative Provisions for Organization of Schools 9
2. The maintenance of schools for the care and edu-
cation of habitual school absentees, of juvenile offenders,
and of abnormal or defective children who cannot be
cared for in the ordinary public schools.
Compulsory school attendance implies an obli-
gation on the part of the state to make suitable J^^ ^ainte-
provision for habitual violators of the law, either schools for
by placing the absentees in good homes or by school absen-
establishing truant or parental schools. These *^^^-
schools should be situated in convenient localities
and be under the control and care of the state.*
Other schools should be established for those
morally delinquent and physically defective chil-
dren who cannot be educated in the ordinary
supported and controlled by the county. In New
York tuition in high schools of non- resident pu-
pils from schools not maintaining an academic
department is paid by the state, at the rate of
$20 for 32 weeks. In Nebraska the law permits
pupils of country towns to attend an existing
high school and provides for tuition fees at fixed
rates to be paid by the county in which they re-
side. In Minnesota state aid is given to city
high schools, approved by state educational au-
thorities upon condition of providing free tuition.
For information relating to free high schools for
rural pupils see report of the Commissioner of
Education for 1899-1900, p. 643.
* There seem to be good reasons for keeping
all reformatory and penal institutions in the care
of the state. Possible exceptions may be those
institutions which are supported by large cities
mainly for their own benefit. In any case they
should be in charge of unpaid boards or com-
missions, with paid executive agents.
10 Schook Organization and Supervision
Schools of re-
formation and
special schools
for defectives.
The function
of state board
of education
advisory.
public schools, such as juvenile offenders, blind,
deaf, and feeble-minded. Attendance at these
schools, as in the case of normal children, should
be compulsory for all children of a certain age
whose education is not otherAvise provided for.
Such schools should be entirely separate, from
truant schools and from the ordinary public
schools, and should be so organized and conducted
that the fullest benefits to all concerned may be
secured. *
3. The estahlisJiment of a state board of education
and the designation of its powers and duties.
The powers and duties devolving upon the
state board should be very general so far as its
administration of the schools is concerned. In
all matters pertaining to the direct management
of the schools its function should be mainly
advisory rather than directive. Through its
executive officers it should lead and guide the
educational sentiment of the state and be ready
to shape such legislation as will be needed to
promote the greatest efficiency of effort in be-
half of the schools, t
In the composition of the state board, as well
as in the method by which its members are se-
lected, much latitude may be given in the statute
* A fuller treatment of this subject will be
found in Chapter VI, under the heading of
"Special Schools and Classes" — also in Appen-
dix E.
t For details respecting the duties of the state
board of education and its executive officers see
Chapter III.
Legislative Provisions for Organization of Schools 11
requirements. The desirability of having the
affairs of education removed as far as possible
from politics would favor the appointment of
members by the governor rather than election by '
the legislature or people. And to secure the
needed knowledge and continuity of service, the
term of office of members should be at least four
years in length. If the board has, as it should ^^^^bersbip of
, .â– nri T , , . State board
have, executive omcers who act as experts m ^nd term of
educational matters, it need not and perhaps office.
should not be composed of professional teachers.
This restriction will be especially apparent in the
case of teachers in institutions which are under
the charge of the board. There are good reasons
for having upon the board one or more members
of the state executive department. The number
of appointed members should be small, perhaps
not more than five. Better attendance at meet-
ings will be secured and a greater degree of re-
sponsibility will be felt in a small board than in
a large one.*
* Tn Prussia and other states of Germany the
general board consists of skilled men to whom
large powers are given. They are appointed by
the minister of instruction, who is a member of
the government. In France the general board
or council also consists of educational leaders
endowed with large powers; they are variously
appointed, some by the president of the Repub-
lic and some by officials of educational institu-
tions. In the composition of state boards in
this country there is a great variety of practice,
some of the boards consisting chiefly or wholly
of professional teachers, some of designated
officials, and some of all classes of citizens. In
12 School Organization and Supervision
4- The establishment of a local board for each town
and city, with some provision to meet the needs of coun-
try districts or small toivns.
The question of organization respecting; the
local school boards has mainly to do with the
manner of selection, number of members, and
term of office of members.
First as to the selection of members. Shall
they be elected by the people, by the city or town
council, or ^j the executive? No doubt has
been raised in this country either in practice or
in theory as to the advisability of the popular
states where members of the board are not des-
ignated by law, they are either elected for a term
of years by the general assembly or appointed
by the governor. In Michigan 3 members are
elected by the people. In New York all state
education is in the hands of a board of regents of
the University of the State of New York, con-
sisting of 1 1 members elected by the legislature
on joint ballot, each for a term of 1 1 years, one
retiring each year. The following examples
serve as types of practice followed in the various
states :
Indiana : Board composed of governor, state
superintendent, president of state universiy,
president of Purdue university, president of
state normal school, and superintendents of the
three largest cities of the state.
Massachusetts : Board composed of governor,
heutenant-governor, and 8 persons appoilated by
the governor, one retiring each year.
Connecticut : Board composed of the governor,
lieutenant-governor, and 4- persons elected by the
general ssembly.
Legislative Provisions for Organization of Schoo Is 13
election of members in rural communities or
small towns. But the arguments in favor of
popular elections in such communities are equally-
strong in all. The public schools are the schools Members of
of the public, that is of the people; and the local school
.people should be trusted in the control of their f^iJ^te^j ^„ the
schools to the extent at least of electing proper people.
persons to manage them. For special reasons
the administrative board should be given large
powers — in fact almost unlimited powers in all
questions of management. The largeness of their
powers and the direct interest the people have
in the schools will induce the people to make a
careful selection. While in some communities
there may be possible dangers attending a pop-
ular election of members, the dangers in the long
run of taking it out of the hands of the people
and of placing it in the hands of a single person
or commission are far more likely to be realized.
The tendency in recent years to reduce the
number of members of tlie board and increase g,^^j^|| i^oavfl.?
their term of service is noticeable, A board of desirable.
3, 5, or 7 persons is likely to represent the best
sentiment of the community quite as well as a
larger one. Moreover the members of a small
board are likely to be more carefully selected
than those of a large one.
The responsible and intricate duties of local
school boards render it advisable to make the
term of service for which members are elected
n long one. Three years is not too long a time
for members to acquire a good knowledge of the
needs of the schools and of the means of meeting
14
School Organization and Supervision
The term of
service of
school boards.
Eligibility of
members.
The organiza-
tion of county
boards.
them. It seems also advisable that the terms
of service of the members shall Dot expire at
the same time. It would be well for the length
of the term and the time of election to be such as
will obhge only a third of the members to retire
in any one year. By this plan at least three
years would be required to effect an entire