rapid is the rise, however, in crossing the valley to the foot of Alleghany
mountain, that an allowance of 1,200 feet is rather too moderate an estimate
for the extremes of cultivated soil.

Passing the Blue Ridge, with partial windings, the Potomac continues
S. E. by comparative courses 50 miles to the lower falls and head of ocean
tides at Georgetown. Having in the intermediate distance received the
Monocacy river, from the north, and some minor creeks from the south;
like the Delaware, below Trenton, and the higher part of Chesapeake
bay. below the mouth of Susquehannah the Potomac, meeting the tide, bends
along the outer margin of the primitive rock. It is indeed very remarka-
ble that the three bends, in the three consecutive rivers, follow almost ex-
actly the same geographical line: or flow from head of tide water, S. W. —
the Delaware 60, Chesapeake 40, and Potomac 45 miles, — the latter a few
miles below the place at which it retires from the primitive rocks, reaches
within six miles of the Rappahannock, below Fradericksburg. The two
latter rivers not far from parallel to each other, assume a comparative course
75 miles to the N. E., the intermediate peninsula being no where above 22
miles wide, and the distance from the south side of the mouth of the Poto-
mac, to the north side of that of the Rappahannock, is only 20 miles.

Combining the two sections above and below the Blue Ridge, the whole
basin of the Potomac embraces an area of 12,950 square miles, extending
from lat. 37° 50' to 40°, and in long. 0° 45' E. to 2° 45' W. of Washington
city. The winding of its tide water channel renders the navigation of the
Potomac bay (for such it is below George Town,) tedious though not dan-
gerous. The channel has sufficient depth to admit ships of the line of 74
guns to the navy yard at Washington.

With its defects and advantages as an agricultural and commercial sec-
tion, — the basin of the Potomac is a very interesting object in physical and
political geography; — deriving its sources from the main Appalachian
spine, the Potomac has worn its channel through the intervening chains to
their bases; and performed an immense disproportion of the necessary task
to effect a water rout into the valley of the Ohio, — such a rout has been
commenced under the name of Chesapeake and Ohio canal, and is yet in
progress. The Potomac is eight miles wide at its mouth, four and a half at
Nomony bay, three at Acquia, one and a half, at Hollooing point, and one
and a half at Alexandria.



52 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Its soundings are seven fathoms at its mouth, five at St. Georges island,
four and a half at Lower Matchodie, three at Swan's point and up to Alexan-
dria, thence 20 feet of water to the falls, which are 13 miles above Alexan-
dria. These falls are 15 miles in length, and of very great descent, and the
navigation above them for batteaux and canoes is so much interrupted as to
be little used, It is however used in a small degree up the Cohongoronta
branch as far as Cumberland, at the mouth of Wills' s creek; and is
capable of being made navigable at no grerat expence. The Shenandoah
branch interlocks with the sources of James river, near the Blue Ridge.

Rappahannock river, formed by two branches, Hedgeman's and
Thornton's rivers, both deriving their remote sources from Blue Ridge,
Hedgeman's river, after a comparative course of 30 miles, between Fauquier
and Culpeper counties, receives Thornton's river from the latter, and the
united waters continuing the course of the former S. E. 20 miles, join the
Rapid Ann. A navigable river at the junction of its two main branches*
the Rappahannock, continues to the S. E. 10 miles to its lowest falls, where
it traverses the primitive ledge, and meets the ocean tides at Fredericksburg.
Similar to the Delaware, and all the large western tributaries of Chesapeake
bay, the Rappahannock turns after passing the primitive rock, but after a
short curve to the southward, this stream resumes a S. E. course, which
with a rather tortuous channel it maintains to Leeds, in Westmoreland county,
where it approaches to within five miles of Potomac, at the mouth of Mat-
tox creek. Gradually widening, and with the features of a long, narrow
bay of 55 miles, the Rappahannock by a S. S. E. course, is lost in Chesa-
peake bay between Windmill and Stingray points. The tide ascends this
channel to the falls at Fredericksburg, something above 100 miles, admit-
ting vessels of considerable tonnage. In all the distance below the union
of its two main branches, it does not receive any accession above the size of
a small creek. The entire basin is 140 miles by a mean width of 20; area
2,800 square miles. Extending in lat. from 37° 34' to 38° 44', and in long,
from 0° 41' east to 1° 22' west of Washington.

Rapid Ann river, deriving its remote sources from the Blue
Ridge, and flowing thence S. E. 20 miles across the valley, between
Blue Ridge and South East mountain, turns thence N. E. 15 miles to the
influx of Robertson's river from the N. W. Passing South East mountain
and inflecting to a general eastern course of 30 miles, it joins the Rappahan-
noek 10 miles above Fredericksburg, after a comparative course of 65 miles.
In nearly the whole of its length Rapid Ann separates Orange county first
35 miles from Madison, and thence 25 from Culpeper. At their junction
it is superior in volume to Rappahannock; and exceeding also in length, of
course, the Rapid Ann is the main stream.

Rivanna river, a branch of James river, is navigable to its intersection
with the South West mountain, which is about 22 miles. The navigation
has lately been opened by dams and canals, and it is now navigable ?o Pi-
reus, within one mile and a quarter of Charlottesville.

Rock creek, a small stream of Maryland, and of the District of Columbia
gams importance only as it separates the city of Washington from George-
town. This creek has its extreme source about four miles westward of Me-
chanicsville, Montgomery county, Maryland, heading with the east branch
ot Potomac river at an elevation above tide water at Georgetown of 500
f&t The entire length of the creek, following its valley, is about 28 miles



OF VIRGINIA. 53

The fall being upwards of 17 feet to the mile, and that fall being in many-
places far above the mean, renders it an excellent mill-stream.

Roanoke river, of Virginia and North Carolina. Taken in the utmost
extent, Roanoke basin is the same as Albemarle, and includes the sub-basins
or vallies of Roanoke proper, and Chowan river. Advancing from south
to north, all the rivers beyond the Roanoke, have their most remote foun-
tains on the Atlantic side of Blue Ridge ; but with the Roanoke a new fea-
ture appears. The Blue Ridge is pierced by that stream, which derives its
higher fountains from the main Alleghany chain in Montgomery county,
Virginia, and within eight miles of the main channel of New river, and at
an elevation without estimating the mountain ridges, of at least 2,000 feet.
Issuing by numerous creeks from this elevated tract, and uniting into one
stream near the border between Montgomery and Botetourt counties, it is
here literally "The Rapid Roanoke," having at Salem, in the latter county,
fallen 1,000 feet in little more than 20 miles. At Salem the water level is
1,002 feet by actual admeasurement, above mean Atlantic tide. Below Sa-
lem the river inflects 20 miles in an eastern course, to its passage through
Blue Ridge, and thence S. E. 25 miles to its passage through South East
mountain. Passing South East mountain between Bedford and Pittsylvania
counties, the now navigable volume sweeps by an elliptic curve to north-
ward, and round to S. E. 50 miles comparative course, to the influx of Dan
river, entering its right side from the west part. Below the junction of
these two rivers, the united waters in a course a little south of east 60
miles by comparative distance, reach tide water at Weldon, having fallen
by a lengthened cataract over the primitive ledge. About midway between
the influx of Dan river and Weldon, Roanoke leaves Virginia and enters
North Carolina. Mingling with the tide, the Roanoke by a very tortuous
channel, but by comparative course flows South East 50 miles, and thence
eastward 25 miles to its junction with Chowan river at the head of Albe-
marle sound. The entire valley of Roanoke, if measured along the main
stream or Dan river is 250 miles, but the rivers wind over this space by
channels of much greater length. By comparative courses it is 155 miles
from Salem to Weldon, whilst from a report made by the Roanoke compa-
ny, the intermediate channel is 244 miles. Taking these proportions, the
length of this river by its meanders is about 400 miles. Including the whole
Albemarle basin, it is 290 miles from its outlet into the Atlantic ocean, to
the fountains of Roanoke in Alleghany mountain, but with the Chowan
and Dan vallies united to that of the principal river, the basin is compara-
tively narrow, bein^ onlv 80 miles where broadest, and not having a mean
breadth above 50 miles, or an area exceeding 14,500 square miles. It is
not, however, its extent which gives most interest to the Roanoke or Albe-
marle basin ; it is at once a fine physical section and physical limit. The
difference of arable level, amounts to at least 2,000 feet, and no two regions
of the earth can differ in every feature more than do the truly beautiful hills
and vales on each side of the Appalachian chains, from the stagnant marshes
and level plains towards the Atlantic ocean. Along the 'lower Roanoke
commences, advancing from the north the profitable cultivation of cotton,
the fig tree begins to appear, rice can be produced, and in summer the ad-
vance towards the tropics is felt, and very distinctly seen on vegetation.
Ascending the basin, the aspect of the northern states gradually appears,
both on the features of nature and on cultivated vegetables. Wheat, rye,
and other small grain, with meadow grasses, and the apple, flourish. The



54 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

summers are cooler, and the winters have the severity suitable to relative
elevation. Though the higher part of Roanoke is annually frozen, and for
a shorter or longer period rendered unnavigable in winter, with lower Roan-
oke commences the region on the Atlantic coast where navigation remains
open at all seasons. It is true that even Albemarle sound has been occa-
sionally impeded with ice, but this phenomenon is rare. As a navigable
channel following either branch, the importance of this basin is lessened by
the shallowness of Albemarle sound — an irremovable impediment. At
present, however, there is in progress a scheme for connecting, by
rail-road, the navigable tide water below Wetdon with Chesapeake bay.
In its actual state the rivers are navigable for boats to Salem on the Roan-
oke, and to Dinbury in North Carolina by Dan river. This was effected
by side canals, sluices and other artificial improvements.

Sandy river, of Virginia and Kentucky, is composed of two branches,
called relatively East fork and West fork. East fork, the main constituent
of Sandy, rises in the Appalachian valleys, interlocking sources with those
of Great Kanawha to the east, and with those of Holstonand Clinch branches
of Tennessee river to the S. E. Issuing from this elevated region, and
draining part of Tazewell and Logan counties, Virginia, the Sandy river
pursues a N. W. direction by comparative courses 50 miles, to its passage
â– through Cumberland mountain. Becoming a boundary between Virginia
and Kentucky below the Cumberland chain, Sandy assumes a direction of
N. N. W. 70 miles, separating Logan and Cabell counties, of Virginia,
from Floyd, Lawrence, and Greenup counties, of Kentucky, to its final in-
flux into Ohio river opposite Burlington, Ohio. West Sandy rises in Rus-
sell and Tazewell counties, Virginia, and assuming a N. W. direction pierces
the Cumberland chain, enters Kentucky, and after traversing Pike and Floyd
â– counties, bends to the northward and joins East Sandy in Lawrence county.
The valley of Sandy river has that of Tennessee river S., Kentucky S. W ,
Licking W., that of Ohio N., Guyandotte E., and Great Kanawha S. E,
It is about 100 miles long, mean width 35, and area 3,500 square miles.

Shenandoah river, one of the great southern branches of Potomac river,
is composed of two branches, called with no great relative correctness,
North Branch and South Branch. The southern and main branch rises in
Augusta county, as far south as latitude 38°, and long. 2° west of Wash-
ington City. Flowing thence northeastward along the northwestern slope
*of Blue Ridge, over Augusta, Rockingham, and Page counties, receives
the North Branch in the southern angle of Federick county, after a com-
parative course of 90 miles.

The North Branch of Shenandoah river has its source in Rockingham
^county, from which it flows by comparative courses N. N. E. 50 miles over
Rockingham and Shenandoah counties, enters Frederick, bends to the east-
ward, and joins the South Branch as already noticed. Below the junction
of its two branches, the Shenandoah flows N. E. along the N. W. slope of
Blue Ridge 40 miles to its junction with the Potomac at Harper's Ferry.

Tennessee river, of the state of the same name, and of the states of
Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia, is
the great southeastern constituent of the Ohio. The very peculiar features
of the valley of Tennessee, demand a general and particular notice. This
valley is naturally divided into two physical sections; the higher or moun-
tainous, and the lower or hilly. The most remote sources of Tennessee are



OF VIRGINIA, 55

found in those of Clinch, in Tazewell, and of Holston in Wythe counties,
of Virginia, interlocking sources with those of Sandy and Great Kanawha!
From this elevated origin, the main constituents pursue a southwestern
course between the two parallel chains of the Appalachian system, Cum-
berland, and the main spine, both stretching in a similar direction with the
rivers, at a mean distance of about 70 miles asunder. Besides this princi-
pal valley, another of less width between the main chain and Blue Rido-e,
is also drained by the constituents of Tennessee ; but this more eastern and
more elevated valley slopes to the N. W., at right angles to the mountain
chains. The latter mountain valley comprises the North Carolina and
Georgia part of the valley of Tennessee. Including both minor vallies,
upper Tennessee drains an elongated ellipise of 350 miles longer axis;
shorter axis 120 miles from the Blue Ridge at the sources of French Broad r
to Cumberland mountain, where it separates the sources of Powell's river
from those of Cumberland: mean breadth 80 miles, and area 24,000 square
miles. Descending from the extreme fountains in Virginia, the valley
widens as the mountain chains recede from each other, and again contracts
as the same chains gradually re-approach each other at the northwestern
angle of Georgia, and northeastern of Alabama. At the latter point, well
known by the name of Nickajack, all the large tributaries have united, and the
Blue Ridge and Cumberland chains have inclined to within less than 40
miles of each other. Below Nickajack, the now large volume of Tennes-
see continues S. W. 60 miles, without receiving a single creek of 20 miles
course, the two bounding mountain chains still inclining upon each other,
till their approaching bases force the river through the Cumberland chain,
To one whose eye first glanced on the volume of Tennessee, below its pas-
sage through Cumberland mountain, without previous knowledge of the
valley above, no adequate idea would occur, that before it, flowed the accu-
mulated waters of a mountainous region of 24,000 square miles extent. In
fact, to an observer, thus placed, the main volume of Tennessee would ap-
pear as one of the constituents of a river valley below the Cumberland
chain. About 20 miles below the passage of Tennessee river through it,
the Cumberland mountain receives the Blue Ridge, if such a term can be
correctly applied to the merging of two mountain chains. Here, along the
northern sources of Mobile basin, the Appalachian system changes its dis-
tinctive character, and the confused masses of hills follow each other west-
wardly toward the Mississippi. The Tennessee river deflects rather more
than does the mountain system, and flows N. W. by W. by comparative
courses 120 miles, to the northwestern angle of Alabama, and the northeast-
ern of Mississippi, where this large stream again bends at nearly right an-
gles, and pursues a course of a very little west of north 150 miles, to its en-
trance into the Ohio, after an entire comparative course of 680 miles.

The second great section of Tennessee, and the lower part of the first,
below Nickajack, are comprised in the fine northern valley of Alabama.
The main volume flowing along the base of a physical line extending from
the Ohio valley in the vicinity of Pittsburg, to the northern part of the ba-
sin of Mobile. The very striking coincidence of the river inflections be-
tween the extremes of this region, must appear to the most inattentive ob-
server of a good map of that part of the United States. This regularity of
structure is evinced by the great inflections of Ohio, Kanawha, Kentucky,
Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers. The Tennessee itself literally
occupies the base of the physical region indicated, as in all its comparative



56 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

course below Nickajack, or its entrance into Alabama, of 330 miles, it Joes
not receive a single stream above the size of a large creek, nor does the outer
selvedge of its valley on the left, in Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and
Kentucky, exceed a mean breadth of 20 miles. On the right, embosomed
between Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, and comprising central Tennes-
see, and northern Alabama, spreads a physical region, extending from Cum-
berland mountain to the lower reach of Tennessee river, 130 miles, with a
mean breadth of 80 miles, and an area of 10,400 square miles. This beau-
tiful tract is semi-circled by the main volume of Tennessee, and drained by
Elk river, Duck river, and innumerable creeks. Below Duck river, how-
ever, Tennessee receives no stream from either side of any magnitude wor-
thy notice in a general view. Including all its sections, the lower valley
of Tennessee comprises an area of 17,600 square miles: and the whole val-
ley embraces a superficies of 41,600 square miles. This extent of Tennes-
see valley, if compared with the whole valley of Ohio, spreads over nearly
one-fifth part, and gives to Tennessee the first rank among the tributaries
of Ohio. Amongst the peculiar features of the course of Tennessee, the
most remarkable is, that rising as far north as lat. 37° 10', and curving
thence southward to lat. 34° 23', it again recurves back to its original lati-
tude, and falls into the Ohio river almost exactly due west from its primi-
tive springs in Tazewell county; thus embosoming nearly the whole large
valley of Cumberland, and part of that of Green river. Geographically,
Tennessee valley lies between north lat. 34° 10' and 37° 10', and in long,
between 4° 15' and 11° 40' west of Washington. It is the first and largest,
advancing from the south, of those streams gushing from the elevated slopes
of the Appalachian ridges, and which flow westward into the great basin
of the Mississippi. In relative height, there is above 1,700 feet difference
between the highest and lowest extremes of Tennessee valley. The arable
surface of Tazewell and Wythe counties, from which the fountains of Ka-
nawha and Holston have their origin, must be at least 2,000 feet above the
Atlantic tides; whilst that of Ohio river, at the influx of Tennessee, but lit-
tle exceeds 300 feet. The difference is fully an equivalent for 4° of latitude,
and accounts for the rapid changes of climate experienced on lines of lati-
tude in Tennessee. The current of every branch of Tennessee is very rapid,
though direct falls are rare, and even dangerous shoals are. not common.
Of the latter, those particularly called Muscle Shoals, between Lauderdale and
Lawrence counties, Alabama, are most remarkable and difficult to navigate.
The whole river, however, having a mean fall exceeding two feet to the
mile, is only favorable to down stream navigation, which it admits in most
of its branches to near their sources.

Tye river, a small river of Virginia, rising in the Blue Ridge, and flowing
southeastward into James river, after draining part of Nelson and Amherst
counties, and by one of its constituents, Piney river, forming for some few
miles the boundary between those counties.

York river of Virginia, formed by two main branches, Pamunky and
Mattapony. Below the union of its constituent streams, York river is ra-
ther a bay, varying from two to three miles in width, extending to the S. E.
27 miles, and thence east 12 miles, into Chesapeake, between York and
Gloucester counties. Below the junction of Pamunky and Mattapony ri-
rivers; York bay does not receive a tributary above the size of a small
creek. It admits ships of any size to or near the Great Bend at York-
town, but above admits only coasting vessels. Including all its tributaries,



OF VIRGINIA. 57

the valley of York river lies between those of James and Rappahannock,
The greatest length 120 miles from the mouth of York river to the ex-
treme source of North Anna river, in South West mountain; but, if taken
with this extent the mean width would not exceed 20 miles, and at the ut-
most breadth, only about 45 miles. The area 2,600 square miles. Exten-
ding- in lat. from 37° 15' to 38° 16', and in long, from 0° 41' E. to 1° 22'
W. of Washington.

Youghioghany river of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, having
its most remote sources in Preston county of the latter state, but deriving its
most numerous southern tributaries from the valley between the Back Bone
and Laurel mountains, Alleghany county, Maryland. From this elevated
tract the main stream flows nearly due north 35 miles, enters Pennsylva-
nia between Fayette and Somerset counties, within which it thence flows
about eight miles direct course to where it is joined by Castleman's river, an
equal or probably a superior stream, entering from the N. E. Some of the
southern fountains of Castleman's river, rise in Alleghany county, Mary-
land, but the greater part of its tributaries flow from Somerset county ;
Pennsylvania, and rise in the same valley with the confluents of Youghio-
ghany. Below the union of the two main branches the Youghioghany
assuming a northwestern course, continues in that direction 60 miles to its
junction with the Monongahela at MacKees port, in Alleghany county.
Where Youghioghany is traversed by the United States road at Smithfield,
the water level is 1,405 feet above that of the Atlantic. The extreme heads
of this stream have an elevation exceeding 2,500 feet; the mouth being ele-
vated about 700 feet, the entire fall must be 1,800 feet. The whole valley
of Youghioghany is either mountainous or very hilly and broken.

CLIMATE.

The following article was received too late for insertion in Its proper
place, but we insert it here as affording some evidence of attention and ob-
servation upon a subject of which our men of science have been too negli-
gent; and which requires the joint and persevering labor of many hands
to afford any thing like accurate detail or valuable information.

At the discovery of our continent it presented an immense forest untouch-
ed by human labor. The majestic rivers of the new world, swelling by
every shower, inundated the whole country, and left in their track numer-
ous marshes and extensive lakes. The woods were hid with rank luxu-
riance, while the exuberant undergrowth of herbs, shrubs, and weeds, gave
to the prospect that gloomy and repulsive solitude which was so aptly de-
scribed by the first settlers as the icildcrness. The earth could not retain
the heat of the sun, nor could this effect be produced by the mass of foliage.
The air stagnated in the forest. Offensive exhalations arose from the nu-
merous marshes, and the accumulated decay of vegetation, while the whole
land was rife with the pestilence of malaria.

We cannot always arrive at definite conclusions of the climate of any
country by barely measuring its degrees of distance from the equator. Its
character is controlled by many other direct causes. Extent of territory —
nature of soil — height of mountains and elevation above the sea, greatly