been maintained as truth by Leo TIL, had been disapproved as an addition to
the Creed, (f) and yet had finally found admission into the Latin version of
that symbol. At a synod convened by Photius in Constantinople (867), the
pope was excommimicated and deposed. During the same year, however,
Basil became sole ruler in the empire by the murder of Michael, Avith whom
he had before been associated in authority, and for this bloody crime the
imperial murderer was debarred by Photius from the communion of the
Church, With calm, lofty dignity, the Patriarch stood before his judges,
and was condemned in the Synod of Constantinople (869), which claimed to
be oecumenical, {d) By the same assembly Ignatius was restored to the pa-
triarchal office, and sought to regain his former friendship with Eome, but
a) Comp. Gfrorer, Carolingcr. vol. I. p. 489. 449ss.
h) E|). 2. Montacut. p. 47ss.
c) Matmi Th. XIV. p. ITss. Anast Vita Leon. Ill, {Muratori Th. III. P. L p. 20S.)
d) Man/ti Th. XVL p. 122ss. 871ss.
CHAP. Vir. OKIEXT. CIIUltCH. § 2:?4. PIIOTIUS. § 235. SCHISM. 259
the dispute respecting tlie Bulgarians, -whom one in his position could not
honorably surrender, soon produced a renewed occasion for strife. On the
death of Ignatius (878), the emperor became reconciled to Photins, and John
Vlll.y hoping to effect a favorable compromise of his difficulties, recognized
the claims of the restored patriarch. At the Synod of Comtaniinople (879),
which is regarded by the Greek Church as the eighth oecuraenical council,
and was attended by Roman deputies, all decrees which had been issued
against Photius Avere annulled, (c) The pope, however, soon found that he
had been deceived in his expectations, and pronounced sentence of excom-
munication against the patriarch and his s^'nod. Photius was also hated by
the heir-apparent to the throne, who luid no sooner assumed the imperial
crown under the name of Leo the Wise (886), than he was sent to a convent,
whore he found his grave (about 891).
§ 235. The Dhiuon of the Church.
Leo AUatius, do Ecc. occ. et or. perpetiia consens. Col. 1648. 4. Mainibourg, Ilist du schisme
d«s Grecs. Par. ICTr. 4. and others. C. A. v. Reicldiii-Meldegg, d. Ursachen d. Trennung. (Theol.
Abhh. Grfiz. 1S29.)
The previous relations of the Oriental to the Roman Church were never
again re-established in a definite form. The Circular which had been issued
by Photius has ever since continued a perpetual monument, in which the
actual differences between the two churches are exhibited in their most ob-
noxious form. The political separation of Italy from the Grecian Empire
necessarily involved also its ecclesiastical. The more the power of the pope
increased in the West, the more decidedly was it needful to repel his claims
in the East. A full declaration of the schism was delayed by nothing but
the hope which the emperor entertained, that he might obtain some assist-
aijce against the Infidel-^ from the warlike nations of the West. But in an
epistle of the VaiTiaxch Michael Cerularius (1053), the usual reproaches which
had been heaped apon the Romish Church were increased by another, which
accused it of the Jewish heresy of using unleavened bread in the Eucha-
rist, {(i) A violent epistolary controversy ensued. Roman legates in Con-
stantinople demanded satisfaction for the offence, and the patriarch sought
support against tlie policy of the emperor in the passions of the people. On the
IGth July, 105-i, the Roman legates deposited on the great altar of the Church
of St. Sophia the sentence of excommunication which had been issued against
the patriarch, and shook off the dust from their feet. (]>) A Greek Synod
hurled back a sentence of excommunication against the Roman Church, and
the otlier Catholic patriarchs became connected with Constanthiople. (c)
Both Churches, the Eastern and the Western, each in like manner claiming
to be Catholic to the exclusion of the other, became henceforth permanently
separated. In consequence of the crusades, this division of the Church be-
e) M<inn Tli. XVII. p. 373SS.
a) To be found only in a Latin transl. in Baroniua ad ann. 1058. N. 22.
h) Bievis comincmorntio eorutn, quae gesserunt Apocrisiarli S. Rom. Scdis in regia urbe, by Car-
dinal /Iiimbert, in Damn, ad ann. 1054. N. 19.
c) Mich. CertUarii Ep. II. ad Pctrum Patr. Antioch. iCotelerii Ecc. gr. Monuni. Tli. II. p.
135SS. 1U2SS.)
2G0 MEDIAEVAL CIIUECn IIISTOET. PER. III. A. I>. M'o-l-.'lC.
came gradnrJly ripened into a national hatred. "While they were in progress,
several efforts were made by those engaged in them to unite with the other
ecclesiastical parties of the East, without success on account of national dif-
ferences. The Maronites^ at that time a warlike tribe, were the only class
which honestly and sincerely submitted themselves to the jurisdiction of the
Latin patriarch of Antioch (1182). {d) The Armenians endeavored to pre-
sent the appearance of a reconciliation whenever they wished for assistance
from the West, but only a few individual congregations under the control
of the "Western governments maintained any connection with the Eomish
Church, and were permitted to retain their own sacred language and the
usages of their ancestors.
§ 236. State of Science.
The science of this period corresponded with the rigid lifelessness which
characterized all departments of society. But the study of the classical
writers and the ecclesiastical fathers, Avhich had never been entirely discon-
tinued, served to transmit from generation to generation the inheritance of
such an education as they were capable of imparting. "When Bardas com-
menced his administration, it began to be perceived that the proud sj^irit of
the nation could not long maintain itself by the side of the vigorous cultiva-
tion of the Mohammedans and the "Western nations, without keeping up a
superiority to them in learning. He therefore became the patron of science,
and Constantinople was for a considerable time the seat of an eminent lite-
rary activity. Histories of the world, the empire, and the Church were
written by authors of various conditions in life and with ditferent degrees of
merit, but all of them pervaded by the spirit peculiar to a resident of Con-
stantinople. The kind of studies pursued was to some extent philological
and rhetorical, or connected with natural sciences, without any predominance
of an ecclesiastical element. Plwtius, who was even in scientific matters a
model for his Church, has in his JBihliotheca (a) preserved for subsequent
ages brief extracts and notices of many Christian and heathen writers, who
would otherwise have been unknown. His Xomocanon^ by the common con-
sent of the Greek Church, has been adopted as its authoritative code of eccle-
siastical law. The first part embraced the canons of those synods which
were then regarded as authoritative, together with some canonical epistles.
These canons and epistles had been collected together some time in the sev-
enth century, and merely received some additions in number from the hands
of Photius. The second part contains the civil laws relating to the Church,
systematically arranged and abridged in fourteen sections, with figures refer-
ring to the corresponding canons of the first part, (h) Simeon MetaiTilirastes
d) With. Tyr. XXII, S. Kwutmami, die Maron. u. ihr Yerh. z. lat. K. (Tub. Quartalschr.
1845. H. 1.)
a) Mvpio^t^Kov s. Bibl. ed. Im. Belker, Ber. lS24s. 2 Th. 4
V) The first Part, toiretlier with the Scholiae oi Zonaraa (about 1120), tmdi BaUamon (1170), Beve-
regii "^vvo^ikov s. Pandectae canonuin, Ox. 1672. 2 Th. £ The Second Part is in Jusielli Bibl. Th.
II. p. 7S5. and the text of the canons which was written out at some time in the 10th cent, in A.
Majo Spicil. Roman. Rom. 1812. Th. VII. Comp. Bienei; z. Eovia. d. Just Codex. Berl. 1833. p.
34ss. Bick^n in d. Jen. L. Z. 1844. N. 282.
CHAP. AIL ORIENT. CHUIICH. § 236. LITEEATUEE. § 207. PAULICIAMS. 261
(10th cenr.) has recorded in a lively manner the old legends of the ancient
saints, (c) Oecumenius^ Bishop of Tricca (about 990), (7) Theo2)hylnct^ Arch-
bishop of the Bulgarians (1107), (<) and Enthyiniiis ZigaienuH^ a monk of
Constantinople (d. about 111&), (/') formed collections for the interpretation of
the Scriptures out of the writings of tiio fathers, which are valuable because
they are the only medium through which we have received a large part of
the treasure from which they were drawn. The Creed of the Church had
become firmly established on the basis of ecclesiastical tradition, and was
now decked oft" with a few cautious Aristotelian formulas. It had also been
somewhat tinctured with the peculiarities of Plutonism through the influence
of the Areopagite and the fathers of the fom-th century. It was obliged to
maintain a perpetual conflict with the philosophy and heretical opinions of
past times. A peculiar spirit is very perceptible in the controversial writ-
ings oi Nichohis^ Bishop of Methotie (died after IIGG), (g) and in the Treasure
of Orthodoxy (/(i) which Nicetas Choniates found consolation in composing in
the midst of the misfortunes of his native land. But the special character of
the age is most distinctly seen in the Panopli((^ collected from the writings
of the fiithers by Euthymiun Zigahemis by order of the theological emperor
Alexius Comnenus, for the refutation and condemnation of all heretics, (i)
Among the Oriental parties, the Jacobites were distinguished for having pre-
served a lively current of the old Syriac learning through several successive
generations.
§ 237. Paulicians. Section 2. Continued from § 1-in.
Conitantini Porphyr. Basilius Macedo. c. 37ss. Anna Comnenn, Alexias. Par. 1C51. f. 1.
XIV. p. 450ss.— J//c/(. PseUi. irepl ^vepyelav 5at/j6i'(DU Sia.\. ed. I/iisenmullei\Ki\. 168S. 12. An-
na Comn. Ale.K. XV. p. 48Css. Euthi/mii Zygadeni Narratio de Bogorn. seu Panopliae tit. 23. gr.
recogn. Zini interpret add. Gieseler, Goett 1S42. 4. (Also in Wolf.)
Sergiits (after 800), under the name of Tychicus, induced the Paulicians
to return to the simplicity of morals which prevailed in the ancient Church.
After his death (835) no single individual was elected to preside over
them, but they were governed by a council of their teachers. The most
intolerable oppressions were patiently endured by them, and it was not till
the Empress Theodora had commenced a process by which they were to
c) Never printed as a separate work, some 122 biographies in the histories of the saints of the
Greek and Eoman Cliurclies, and the Codices, seldom by themselves. Leo AUatius, de variis Si-
meonib. etSimeonum scriptis. Par. 1C64. 4.
d) Comni. in Acta App. Epp. Paulinas et eath. ed. F. J^forellus, Par. 1631. 2 Tli. f.
e) Comm. in XII. Propli. niin. IV. Evv. Acta App. Epp. Paul. (0pp. ed. </. F. B. M. de Ruheis,
Yen. ITSiis. 4 Th. f.)
/) Comm. in Psalm. {Theophyl, 0pp.) in IV. Evv. ed. C. F. Matthaei, Lps. 1792. 3 Th. f.
g) 'AvanTv^ti T^y ^(uXoyiKris aroixet'uo'fajs Tlp6K\ov TlKaTuviKov, ed. Voetnel, F re f. 1825.
h) Gtjffaupbs op&o5o|iaj 1. XXVII., only the flvo iirst books in the transl. by Pet, MareUun,
Par. 1569. (Bibl. PP. max. Th. XXV.)
i) ZlavoTrXia SoyfJ-any^ rrjs op^oS. irio-Tecoy, Ttrgov. 1711. £ (The extravagant Tit. 24. against
Islam in Sylburgi Saracenica, ed. Bnirer. Ileidelb. 1595.) Lat. ed. Zino, Ven. 1555. f. (Bibl. PP.
Liigd. Th. XIX. Tit. 12 and 13 against the Eoman Church is suppressed.) Comp. Amine Comn. Sup-
plementa Ilistoriam ecc. Grace, p. XI. et XII. spectantia, ed. T. L. F. Tafel, Tub. 1882.— TO/nfmn,
Nic. V. Metlione, Euth. Zig. and Nic. Chon. o. d. dogm. Entwickl. d. Griecb. K. im 12 Jahrli. (Stud,
u. Krit. 1833. P. 3.)
2G2 MEDIAEVAL CIIUKCH IIISTOET. PEE. III. A. D. SOO-1216.
be utterly exterminated by a general massacre, that they flew to 'arms. An
imperial general whose name was Carhcas (844), actuated by a desire of re-
venge for the wrongs which his father had sustained from tlie government,
became their leader, formed an alliance with the Arabians, and strongly forti-
fied Tcphrica, a mountain-hold on the eastern confines of the empire. He
and his successor Chrymclieres^ with all the cruelty which fanaticism inspires,
made excursions from this fortress, and laid waste the provinces of Asia Mi-
nor. Although tlie Emperor Bmil finally succeeded in destroying Tephrica
(871), many Paulicians maintained their existence as a people in the moun-
tainous regions, and kept the extreme portions of the empire in continual
agitation. That he might break up theii" connections with the Saracens, John
Zimisces formed a treaty with them (970), in accordance with which they
were for the most part removed to Thrace, where a colony of them had been
formed even in the eighth century. Here they acknowledged a certain kind
of allegiance to the empire, but in the independent possession of Philippo-
2)oUs they served with great bravery as border sentinels. AleHus Camiie-
nits having been abandoned by a large band of them in the Norman war,
etfected their subjugation by stratagem and violence (after 1085). During his
residence in his winter quarters in Thrace (1115) he sought the honor of their
conversion, and in fact many of them yielded to the arts of the imperial
apostle. But the Paulicians, under the name of Enchites, with Manichean
doctrines and fanatical forms of prayer, and under Elders who Avere regarded
as apostles of Thrace, had before th's become numerous among the Bulga-
rians, (rt) The affinities of these people for the Slavonic Dualism gave them
acceptance in that nation among which they were commonlj' called Bogo-
miles. According to their system of faith, the original Source of all Being
had two sons, called Satanael and Logos. In his attempts to attain equality
with the Father the former became evil in his nature, seduced the angels
from their allegiance, and formed the visible universe. Through the divine
powers which he still retained he created man, and by Eve he became the
father of Cain. All ecclesiastical organizations were established under the
influence of Satanael, and had their principal seat formerly at Jerusalem, but
then at the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. The holy Virgin con-
ceived in consequence of an influence through the ear, and Christ in the
body of an angel succeeded in overcoming his elder brother. The Bogomiles
acknowledged the authority of the Psalms and of sixteen prophets in the
Old Testament, and received many apocryjjhal books, (h) bui they gave an
allegorical interpretation to the sacred history, and to the usages of the
Church. In the garb of monasticism they concealed themselves even in Con-
stantinople until Alexius extorted a confession from them, and burned Basi-
lius their leader at the stake (1118). (c) Small communities of Bogomiles
were found among the Bulgarians through the whole period of the middle
ages, and Paulicians have continued to exist under many changes in and
around Philippopolis and in the vaUeys of the Haemus until the present day.
a) Schnitzer, d. Encli. im 11. Jahrli. {Siinn's Stud. d. Geistl. Wurt. vol. II. H. 1.)
I) Liber S. Joannis. (TJiilo Cod. apocr. Th. I. p. 884.) Visio Isa. (§ 89, note d.)
r) J. a Wolf, Hist. BoRoni. Vit. 1712. 4. X. Oecler, Prodr. 11. Bog. crit. Goett. 174-3. 4. i:iigel-
hitrdt, d. Bog. (KGesch. Ablili. Eri. 18:32. N. 2.)
FOURTH PERIOD.
FROM INNOCENT III. TO LUTIIEE.
§ 238. General View and Historical Writers.
\) § 170. Fontfs reriim Germ. Gescliichtsquellen Deutschl. (14. & 13. Jlili.) ed. by J. F. Boehmer,
Stuttg. 1S4.3-5. 2 vols. Alliertim Stiidtmis, Benedictine Abbot, Franciscan, died after I'JOn, Cliron.
till 1256. ed. liduecc. 1587. Vit. IGOS. 4. {Schilieri Scrr. rer. germ. vol. II. p. 123.) Continuation
1264-1.324, ed. A. llijer, llafn. 1720. Viiicentius Bellovacimsin, Dominic, in Iloyemont, died about
1264, Specidurn liistoriale, till 1250. Argent 1473. 4 vols. f. Aug. 1474. 3 vols. f. {SvUlnsHer, Vine. v.
Beauvnis u. Erzieh. in. 3 Abli. Frkf. 1S19. 2 vols.) Mutiheua Paris, Benedict, in S. Albans,
Hist, major till 1259. (10C6-1235. from the Cliron. of Roger tie WentJover, Lond. 1S40.) contin. hy
W. Ithhiinger, WW 127-% ed. m/i-v, Lond. 1G44. 1GS4. [publ. by the Camden Soc. edited by /7i(?Zj-
icell. Lond. 1S40.] f. it often. Joannes de Winterthur, Francise., Chron. 1215 — 134S. (Thesanr. Hist,
llelv. Tig. 1736. f.) Albertus Argentinensis, Cbron. 1273-137S. {Umtia vol. II. p. 95.) The Strasburg
Chronicle by Closener (died 13(14.) closes at 1362. ed. by a Lit. A.ssoc. in Stnttgard. 1S43. Jae. Twinger
of Konigshofev, a priest of Strasburg, died 1420. Elsafs. Cliron. till 13SG, ed. by Sclulter. Strasb.
169S. 4. {Kunisc/i, Konigsh. & his Chron. In W. Mullers Ascania. Hid. 1S20. P. II. Strohel de
F. Closneii Chron. germ. Arg. 1S29.) Gobelimis Persona, Dean of Bielefeld, died 1420, Cosmodro-
miuin, independently 1340-141S. {ifeihoin, vol. I. p. 53.) Aiitoniinix, Dominic. Archbish. of Flor-
ence, Suinma liistorialis till 1459. Nor. 1484. 3 vols. f. & often. (0pp. Flor. 1741ss. vol. I.) Weriier
lioljink, Cartliusian in Cologne, d. 1500, Fasc. teniporum till 1470. Col. 1474. f & often. Cont. by
Jo. Linturius till 1514. (I'ialor. Stritve vol. II. p. 347.)— 2) Alhettiims Musudtus, of Padua, d. 1330,
Hist Augusta llcnr. VIL De gestis Italor. post mortem llenr. till 1317, Ludnv. Bavarus, Fragment,
{JIurat. vol. X.) Giov. Villani, of Florence, Storie Florentine till l."4S, cont. by Matleo &
Filippo ViUani till 1364. {Murat. vol. Xllls.) Mil. 1729. f. & often. Jean Froimart, of Valen-
ciennes, d. 1441, Chron. de France, d'Angl. etc. 1326-1400. Par. 1503. 1504 4 vols. f. revue p. Sav^
vage, Lyon. 1559ss. 4 vols, f In the Coll. des Chroniqnes par Biiehon, Par. 1824. 10-25 voLs. of the
13th cent {Praetoriux u. Froiss In Sclilosser's Arch. f. Gesch. 1883. vol. V.) [Chronicles
of Engl. France, Spain, Ac, transl. new ed. Lopd. 1S45. 2 vols. S.] P/iil. de Comminefi, d. 1509, Chron.
et Ilistoire 14G4-9S. Par. 1528. f. &• often, rev. p. Z. du Fresnoy, Lond. 1747. 4 vols. 4. Fr. Guicci-
ardini, d. 1540. Storia d'ltalia, 1493-1532. Vcn. 15C7. 4. & often. [Hist of Italy from 1493-1532,
transl. by A. P. Goddard, 2 ed. 1775, Lond. 9 vols. 8. Froi.s«art, Commines & Gulcciardini have
been transl. into Eng. & iiublished together. New York & Lond. 1848.] The portions of Gnic. sup-
pressed by public authority are in Heidegger, Hist. Papains, ed. 2. Amst. 1698. GolduKti Monarchia
vol. III. p. 17ss. — 3) CocciuH SahelUcus, Historiogr. of Venice, d. 1506, Enneades s. rhap.sudia Histo-
riaruin till 1504, Yen. 1498ss. 2 vols. f. & often. (0pp. Bas. 1560. 4 vols, f )— 4) Pt.ilemaeiix de Fiado-
nihnx, Lucenxis. Domin. Bish. of Torcello, d. 1327, Hist. ecc. till 1312. {Murat. vol. XI. p. 741.)
TrithemiuH, d. 1516. Annates I/irsuiigiennes 830-1514. S. Galli lt'90. 2 vols, f— 5) Astronomical
Hist of the Empire by Georg. Acropolita, 1204-61. ed. Leo AlhitiuK, Par. 1G51. f. Gtorg. Pachy-
ineren 1253-1308. ed. PoKsiniix, Horn. IGGlss. 2 vols. f. Im. Belker. Bonn. 1S35. Mcep/i. Gregoras,
1204-1359. ed. Boivinus, Par. 1702. 2 vols, f Joan. Cantacuzenos 1320-54. ed. Pontunn/i, Par. 1645.
8 vols. £ Joan, Ducaa 1341-1462, e<l. Bullialdun, Par. 1649 f. Chalcondyla.^ 1293-14G2, ed. Fa-
brot. Par. 1650. f. Georg. Phranzes 1401-77, Lat ed. Pontanus, Ingoldst 1604. 4.
For a considerable time the liierarcliy ajiparently preserved its position at
the zenith of its power. But in consequence of tho.':c abu.ses to which un-
limited authority always leads when intrusted to human hands, public favor,
on which it entirely rested, soon became alienated from it. The claims which
264 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1517.
it set up were as exorbitant as ever, and even more so, but as they were
general!}' repelled, they were productive only of injury to itself. The power
of the Papacy and of the empire Avere so conducted as mutually to destroy
one another. The kings always found support against the encroachments of
the popes in the sense of justice and in the strong love of independence which
existed in the hearts of their people. Under the iniiform improvement in the
dispositions and habits of the people, which the Church luid fostered in every
European country, peculiar nationalities now began to be prominently devel-
oped. An intellectual education was extended among the people without the
aid of the Church, by means of which the popular mind became more ma-
ture, and lost its peculiar ecclesiastical cliaracter. In these circumstances
the hierarchy attempted to maintain its ascendency by intrigues and direct
force, and while it was struggling for its own existence it could no longer
afford protection against political despotism. A reformation extending not
only to the members but to the very head of the Church was generally re-
garded as indispensable, and was in various quarters actually attempted.
Catholicism itself appeared to have become for many nations an antiquated
system, and not adapted to the existing condition of things. And yet, as it
may often be remarked in history, that great spiritual principles sometimes
produce their sublimest forms just as they are about to be subverted, so
Catholicism accomplished its noblest achievements during this period. The
papacy was still the most prominent of all actors in history, although its
sphere was frequently limited to the circle of French and Italian jfolitics.
The life of a feAv princes sometimes becomes the leading object in the picture
of events, and new powers are raised up for the deliverance of the Church.
General history was still written in the same ecclesiastical style in which it
had formerly been composed. Vincent of JBeauvais, in his Encyclopaedia of
aU the knowledge and movements of his times, has given us a clear and true pic-
ture of his age. Matthew Paris, in his English history, containing also many
sagacious observations respecting all the countries of Western Europe, has
not hesitated to disclose, with some bitterness, the crimes of the ecclesiasti-
cal rulers, for this rigid monk was animated by a supreme love to the Church
itself. Allert of Strasburg, a candid and faithful writer, presents lively
views of individual characters. The Alsatian Chronicle presents a history of
the people whose name it bears in their own language. Antoninus of Florence
composed a general history, in which the future saint has displayed the most
undoubting faith and much modest criticism. Several statesmen have also
given us histoi'ies, in which are presented the views of men in secular life.
Among these were: Alhertinus Mussattis, who wrote a history of his own
times and of neighboring countries, in a manner somewhat harsh but accu-
rate ; Villani, who, with his brother and nephew, composed a history of
Florence, with which also is connected many notices of the Middle Ages
generally, in a style of old Eoman simplicity ; Froissart, in whose Chronicles
the wars and royal courts of Western Europe are described with an extreme
relish for the glories of the declining orders of knighthood ; and Commines,
in whose Avork we have the memorials of an age in which he sat at the helm
of affairs, and knew all the secrets of its history. The extreme character of
CHAP. I. PAPACY. § 239. FREDERIC II. GEEGORV IX. 265
this class of Avriters may be best seen in Guicciardini, in whose liistoiy of
Italy we have a true and lively picture of events, in which he was too inti-
mately concerned always to be impartial. Finally, we have the brilliancy of
classic learning displayed in the General History written by Sabellicus. In
immediate connection with the subject of Churcli History, rtolcmaeus of
Lucca compiled a work which is of considerable critical value, on account of
the great number of authorities which he has carefully quoted, with respect
to the times immediately preceding his own. In a Chronicle of the old
Benedictine Abbey of Trittenheim, is also interwoven the history of the
general Church, especially so far as relates to Germany, with much learning,
but with an extreme bias for orthodoxy. The Byzantine historians^ in the
lofty style of writing peculiar to their ancient authors, have described the
^solemnities, the afflictions, and the commotions of the Eastern Roman Em-
pire, in which they generally bore so important a part. But in the opinions
which they express respecting western atfairs, allowance must be made for
the asperity of feeling produced by the dominion of the Latins and the abor-
tive attempts frequently made at reconciliation.