church edifices that go to the heart of the lover of beauty, and why the United States
has so few that are interesting. Aside from the great Gothic monuments in Spain,
Mexico surpasses Spain in interesting ecclesiastical architecture. It has more variety,
more quaint beauty, more originality in towers and fa9ades. The interiors are gener-
ally monotonous, and repetitions of each other. The Spaniards, in an age of faith,
built churches, convents, monasteries, all over the county, in remote and unimportant
Indian villages, and as far north as their patient ministers of religion wandered, even
to the Vjay of San Francisco. In these edifices the Spanish ingenuity and enthusiasm
prevailed, but they were largely executed by Indian builders and artists ; and if there
is Sarasenic feeling shown, there are also, especially in ornamentation, traces of that
aboriginal artistic spirit which, long before the Spanish conquest, executed both in stone
and in pottery singularly attractive work. Even within a hundred years of our own time
Indian genius has been distinguished. Those who think that this genius is only exhib-
1
IRellgion* 93
Not all the great dignitaries of the Church exhibited an unchristian
selfishness, for many often spent their income in pious and charitable
works, and in prosecuting missionary undertakings among the Indians
of the remote distances.
The wealth of the Church was loaned out at a moderate rate of in-
terest to landed proprietors, who formed the moral support of the
Church among the laity and whose influence was prodigiously strong.
The wealth of the Church was mostly in mortgages, while it held a
large amount of real estate. In the City of Mexico and other places,
the clergy owned a large portion of the real estate and held a great
many mortages, and, to its credit be it said, was not at all usurious, ex-
acting only a fair rate of interest and being hardly ever oppressive in
dealing with delinquent debtors.
After the Revolution which effected the independence of the
country, the ecclesiastical life began to cease having many of the
attractions it had before. While many men became friars from
genuine inclination and vocation, not a few went into the religious life
because it gave them support without hard labor, and because it was
one of the best careers opened to young men at the time.
The nunneries sheltered a great many pious women, who effected
some good as educators of the young, as almoners for the wealthy, and
as nurses of the sick. There were abuses, of course, but on the whole
the religious life afforded a refuge for many thousands of good women
who felt drawn to works of" charity and usefulness. Rich young girls
were often over-persuaded to enter the convents, by avaricious and
scheming priests, but such abuses are common to all religions. The
Liberal party thought that the best way to destroy the Church influence
in Mexico was to suppress convents, both of friars and nuns, because they
ited in bizarre forms, and in such small details of design and color as the potter can
attain, should see at Queretaro the work of Tresguerras, architect, sculptor, and pain-
ter. Any modern architect, who is led away by straining after effect in a grotesque
combination of distinct Greek styles with medireval and early English, having no note
of originality anywhere, could study with profit the simple elegance — as simple as the
Old Louvre — of the Bishop's Palace in Queretaro, or the wood-carving in the church
of the sequestered Convent of Santa Rosa. In my remembrance there is not, on such
a great scale, any wood-carving in the world equal to it in freshness and largeness of
execution and in beauty of design. It could not have been all done by the hand of
Tresguerras, but it was all from his designs and under his superintendence. Of course,
as to civic and ecclesiastic architecture, climate and lack of popular taste for the beauti-
ful put limits upon our architectural work, but it is worth the while of the American
architect to consider whether he cannot learn more from our sister republic below the
Tropic of Cancer than he is likely to get from the well-studied structures of Europe.
In many petty and poverty-stricken Indian villages are charming towers and curious
fa9ades which would be a most valuable education in the principles of taste to any
American community."
94 0eoorapbical TRotes on /IDejico,
were considered a nest of superstition, and they thought that the best
interest of the country required to close tlieni.
During our civil wars the clergy contributed large amounts to the
support of the conservative governments, which it often established.
It is thought that in 1853, General Santa Anna abandoned the Con-
servative Government, which he then presided over, because the Arch-
bishop of Mexico did not give him all the money he required to carry
on the war waged against him by the Liberal party.
The wealth accumulated by the Church of Mexico was used for the
purpose of supporting the conservative governments, whose policy was
to keep the statu quo, and was therefore opposed to progress of any
kind. The Church became a very prominent factor in politics, and
could upset and establish governments at its pleasure, fomenting
the many revolutions which were constantly breaking out. It was
thought necessary, therefore, to destroy the political power of the
Church before we could establish and maintain ])eace, and that work
was done by what we call our Laws of Reform, issued in 1859, which
established a comj)lete independence between the Church and the
State, and were intended to completely end the domination of the
Catholic Church in civil affairs in Mexico : the Church property was
confiscated, so that even the houses of worship are now the property
of the government ; all convents of friars and nuns were closed, all
religious ceremonies — such as processions and wearing a distinctive
dress, — were ordered to be confined to the interior of the edifices ;
the cemeteries were secularized, and marriage made exclusively a civil
contract. No religious instruction or ceremony is allowed in the public
schools, and never is a j)rayer offered as a part of the program of a
national celebration. In an article, which I published in the North
American Review, of January, 1895, entitled "The Philosophy of the
Mexican Revolutions," I dwelt especially on this subject, and to that
article I refer the reader who may desire more detailed information.
The Liberals were not the first to dispose of the Church property
and revenues, as the Spanish Government, under the rule of Godoy, in
1805 and 1806, to secure funds to form a redemption provision for the
royal vales or credit notes, pounced on the property of the Church in
Mexico, and that, later on, when the Mexicans rose in their war for
independence, the royal authorities took another ])art of the Church's
wealth to fight the patriots.
The bigoted Catholic element which used to be decidely opposed to
any liberal government and was always conspiring to overthrow it, has
since the downfall of Maximilian, become satisfied that the condi-
tion of things has changed having accordingly changed their course,
and now there are thousands of progressive catholics in Mexico
sincerely devoted to their Church, who see only danger and eventual
I
IReligiou. 95
disastrous defeat in the adoption of a program of reaction. They go
with the times and support the administration of Gen. Diaz because,
on the whole, it suits them, and manifests no hostiHty to their con-
scientiously held convictions. The pope's influence seems to be
directed to assuaging ancient rancors, and to the calming of passionate
resentments, which is a great deal better for the Church.
Protestantism i?i Mexico. — The Liberal party proclaimed as an
inherent right of man, freedom of conscience and the free exercise
of one's religion ; but the question was really only a theoretical
one, since excepting a few foreigners, no one in Mexico had any
other religion than the Catholic. The clergy, the Church party,
and all strict Mexican catholics were greatly opposed to the intro-
duction of Protestantism, because protestants were looked upon as
heretics whose purpose was to divide the Mexican people into dif-
ferent sects, disturbing their religious unity, which they considered a
source of national strength, and ultimately aiding in what some
Mexicans fear is the aim of this country, that is : the final absorption of
Mexico. When the struggles between the Liberal and the Church
party terminated in favor of the former in 1867, with the withdrawl of
the French army from Mexico and the downfall of Maximilian, the
time came to put into practice the principles of the Liberal creed, and
protestant organizations in the United States sent missionaries to
Mexico for the purpose of establishing and propagating the protestant
religion there. The Mexican Government could not refuse to allow
the missionaries the free exercise of the Protestant or any other faith,
because that right was guaranteed to all men in our constitution, and
also because it has been a principle for which the Liberal party had
been contending during many years.
But we went, then, further than allowing the Protestants the free ex-
ercise and preaching of their religion, and as I am in a measure respon-
sible for that step, I think it proper to give my reasons for the same.
My opinion has never been favorable to missionary work, because al-
though I recognize that some religions have higher moral principles than
others, I think that on the whole they are all intended to accomplish the
same purpose, that all are good, when practised in good faith. It has
always seemed to me that Christian missionaries sent to heathen
countries would be looked upon in the same manner as would be
heathen missionaries sent to Christian countries. But even supposing
that it should be proper and desirable for the Christian religion, on
account of its high morals and principles, to send missionaries to
heathen countries for tlie purpose of converting them to Christianity,
that principle would scaracely hold good in Christian countries of
different denominations, and Catholicism is a Christian religion — what-
ever abuses it may have committed, — and I think the natural tendency
96 6eoorapbical IRotes on /FDejico.
of all religions when they are predominant is to absorb and misuse
power ; but that Protestants should send missionaries to a Catholic
country seems to me inconsistent. In principle, therefore, Mexico is
hardly the proper field for Protestant missionaries, notwithstanding
that there is a great deal of room for improvement there, in so far as
religious matters are concerned.
After having witnessed the terrible consequences of religious intol-
erance and political domination of the Catholic Church in Mexico,
I was of course greatly impressed Avith the condition of things existing
in the United States, where all religions are tolerated and none attempts
to control the political destinies of the country. I thought that one of
the best ways to diminish the evils of the political domination and
abuses of the clergy in Mexico was to favor the establishment of other
sects, which would come in some measure into competition with the
Catholic clergy and thus serve to cause it to refrain from excesses
of which it had been guilty before. When, after having lived for
ten years in the United States, from 1859 to 1868, I returned to
Mexico and took charge of the Treasury Department there, just at
the time when the religious question was being solved, I, therefore,
favored the establishment of a Protestant community as planned by
Mr. Henry C. Riley, since made a Bishop, a gentleman of English
parentage, born in Chili, who had been educated in London and New
York and was graduated with high honors at Columbia College, New
York, who spoke equally well English and Spanish, and eagerly desired
to establish a Mexican National Church in competition with the Roman
Catholic, in which undertaking, I understand, he used his own funds.
He proposed to buy one of the finest churches, the main church of the
Franciscan convent, which had been built by the Spaniards, located in
the best section of the City of Mexico, and which could not now be
duplicated but for a very large amount of money ; and with the hearty
support of President Juarez, who shared my views and who was perhaps
a great deal more radical than I was myself on such subjects, I sold
the building which had become national property after the confiscation
of the Church property, for a mere trifle, if I remember rightly about
$4000, most of that amount being paid in Government bonds which
were then at a nominal price.
The magnificent building sold to Dr. Riley's community was bought
recently by the Catholic Church to restore it as a Catholic temple, for
the sum of $roo,ooo, as I understand. My assistance was rendered to
the Protestant cause for the reasons that I have stated, and not because
I had adopted the Protestant faith ; therefore the action of the Mexi-
can Government in the matter at the time I speak of, was all the more
praiseworthy. Dr. Butler bought about the same time another part of
the same convent of San Francisco, where he established a Methodist
Church in a verv creditable building.
II
IReliaion. 97
It is true that a great many Mexicans, namely the Indians, do not
know much about religion and keep to their old idolatry, having changed
only their idols, that is, replaced their old deities with the images of the
Saints of the Catholic Church, but it would be difficult for the Protest-
ant missionaries to reach them. The Spaniards labored zealously to
make the natives adopt the Catholic religion, and although they suc-
ceeded wonderfully, it was a task too difficult to fully accomplish in the
three centuries of the Spanish domination in Mexico.
I do not think that the American Protestant missionaries in Mexico
have made much progress, and I doubt very much whether Mexico is
a good field for them ; but they are satisfied with their work, and they
think that under the circumstances, they have made very good progress.
The number of Catholic churches and chapels in the country was,
in 1889, 10,112, while the number of Protestant places of worship was
119. On August 12, 1890, there were in the municipality of Mexico
320,143 Catholics and 2623 Protestants.
The American missionaries, and especially Dr. Riley, whom I con-
sider a very benevolent and unselfish man, have established Protestant
schools and asylums for children, spending considerable money in main-
taining such institutions. Of course poor parents were glad to send
their children to the Protestant schools and asylums when they could
not afford to keep them at home or send them to more desirable places,
and these Protestant institutions were of a very benevolent character
and worthy, therefore, to be encouraged. Parents in such cases de-
clared themselves to be partial to Protestantism, but only for the sake
of having their children accepted in the Protestant schools and asylums,
and this made the Protestants think they were making a great many
converts.
Now and then a Catholic priest would renounce Catholicism and
accept Protestantism, and such occurrences were always considered as
great triumphs for the Protestant cause, but although in some instances
such changes have been made in good faith, in others they were made
for selfish purposes, and they never had any great weight with the
community.
I have no prejudice against Protestantism ; on the contrary, I ad-
mire greatly many of its principles, and in speaking on this subject I
consider myself perfectly impartial and unbiassed.
In February, 1888, the Evangelical Assembly, representing the vari-
ous Protestant denominations and Evangelical Societies conducting
missionary operations in the Republic of Mexico, was held in the City
of Mexico. They claimed that, notwithstanding the difficulties of
language and climate and the other obstacles with which they had to
contend, they found that they had over 600 congregations, 192 foreign
and 585 native workers, over 7000 in the day schools, and about 10,000
98 (Bcoorapbical Botes on /iDejico*
in the Sunday-schools, 18,000 communicants and a Protestant commu-
nity of over 60,000 souls. Ten small publishing-houses are turning out
millions of pages each year, and their church property is valued at
nearly a million and a quarter dollars in silver.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.
Mexico was the largest and richest American colony of Spain, and
for this reason it was called New Spain. The City of Mexico grew
during the Spanish rule to be larger than Madrid, the capital of the
Spanish Kingdom, the population of the country being estimated in
1810, just before the independence movement began, at 6,122,354;
while the public revenue of the whole colony amounted to the very
large sum of $20,000,000 yearly, the only exports of the country
being silver and gold, and commodities of great value in small volume
and weight, such as cochineal, vanilla, indigo, and a few others.
Mexico accomplished her independence in 182 1, and since then
has had two Federal Constitutions, both modelled after the Constitu-
tion of the United States ; two Central Constitutions, which organized
the country into a centralized republic, and two ephemeral empires,
one under Iturbide, lasting ten months, from 1822 to 1823, and the
other under Maximilian, established by French intervention, lasting
from 1864 to 1867.
Mexico is now organized, under the Constitution of the 5th of
February, 1857, with its several amendments, into a Federal Republic,
composed of twenty-seven states, two territories, and a federal district,
and the political organization is almost identical with that of this
country. The powers of the Federal Government are divided into
three branches — Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The Legislative
is composed of a House of Representatives and a Senate ; the mem-
bers of the House are elected for two years and the senators for four,
the Senate being renewed by half every two years. Representatives
are elected by the suffrage of all male adults, at the rate of one mem-
ber for every 40,000 inhabitants. The qualifications requisite are to
be at least twenty-five years of age and a resident of the State ; and for
senators thirty years.
The Executive is exercised by a President elected by the electors
popularly chosen, who holds his office for four years, without any
provision forbidding his re-election. He has a cabinet of seven mem-
bers, namely : Secretary of Foreign Affairs, of the Interior, of Justice
and Public Instruction, of Fomento, which means ^promotion of Pub-
lic Improvements, and includes public lands, patents, and coloniza-
tion ; of Communications and Public Works, of the Treasury, and
of War and Navy. No Vice-President is elected, but by an amend-
ment to our Constitution, promulgated April 24, 1896, in the per-
polttical ©roanisation, 99
manent or temporary disability of the President, not caused by
resignation or by leave, the Secretary of State, and after him the Secre-
tary of the Interior, shall exercise that office until Congress elects a
President pro tempore. In case of resignation, Congress, accepting it,
elects a President pro tempore, and in case of leave the President re-
commends to Congress the person to fill that office.
The Federal Judiciary is composed of a Supreme Court, consisting
of eleven Judges, four substitutes, one x'Vttorney-General, and one Fis-
cal, chosen for six years; three Circuit and thirty-two District Courts.
The States are independent in their domestic affairs, and their
governments are similarly divided into three branches : the Governor,
the Legislature, and the State Judiciary.
As we adopted the federal system rather to follow the example of
the United States than to suit the conditions of Mexico, that system
did not work with us so easily or so satisfactorily as it works here ;
and the tendency is rather to centralization and to the increasing of
the powers given by the Constitution to the Federal Government. In
the article above mentioned published in the North American Review^
for January, 1896, entitled, " The Philosophy of the Mexican Revo-
lutions," ' I dwelt particularly on the results of our having copied al-
most literally the political institutions of the United States, and gave a
general idea of our political condition.
Political Division. — When the federal system was established in
Mexico, in 1824, each of the old provinces under the Spanish rule was
organized as a State, and our Constitution of October 4, 1824, enumer-
ated nineteen States. After the war with the United States we lost
Texas, New Mexico, and California ; but since then as I stated in
the chapter on population some of the larger States have been divided
into two, or even three States, as was the case with the old State of
Mexico, out of which were formed the three present States of Mexico,
Hidalgo, and Morelos. Our present Constitution, of February 5, 1857,
enumerates twenty-four States ; but we now have twenty-seven.
The tabular statement published above, under the head of " Popu-
lation," shows the number of States which form the Mexican Con-
federation, their area, population, and capital cities.
Army and Navy. — During our civil wars, and for some time later,
we had to keep a very large standing army, and our army acquired re-
cently a very high degree of discipline and efficiency. The Liberal party
always favored the reduction of the army, while the Church party
favored a large army, as our old regular army, on the whole, took sides
with the Church. Soon after the restoration of the Republic, in 1867,
the Mexican army consisted of : Infantry, 22,964 ; engineers, 766 ; ar-
' This article will appear in this volume under the head of " Historical Notes on
Mexico."
loo Geoorapbical IRotes on /IDejico.
tillery, 2304 ; cavalry, 8454 ; rural guards of police, 2365 ; gendarmerie,
250; total, 37,103; and was commanded by 11 Major-Generals, 73
Brigadier-Generals, 1041 Colonels, Lieutenant-Colonels, and Majors,
and 2335 Commissioned Officers. The total fighting strength, including
reserves, is stated to be 132,000 infantry, 25,000 cavalry, and 8000
artillery. Every Mexican capable of carrying arms is liable for mili-
tary service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year.
Notwithstanding that General Diaz is himself a soldier, he has fol-
lowed the policy of the Liberal party of reducing the army as much as
possible, and in his report of November 30, 1896, in which he informs
his fellow citizens of his results of his sixteen years administration, he
gives the following figures, showing the reduction he has been able to
accomplish in the army since 1888 :
The army had, in 1888, according to President Diaz's report, the
following personnel :
Major-Generals 16
Brigadier-Generals 84
Commissioned Officers 1,205
Non-Commissioned Officers 2,566
Soldiers 29,367
Total 33,238
In 1896 the personnel had been reduced in the following numbers :
Generals 24
Commissioned Officers 166
Non-Commissioned Officers 299
Soldiers 8,170
Total 8,659
The Mexican navy is now in its inception, as it consists of a fleet of
two dispatch vessels, launched 1874, each of 425 tons and 425 horse-
power, and severally armed with a four-ton muzzle-loading gun, and
four small breech-loaders. A steel training ship, the Zaragoza, of
1200 tons, was built at Havre, in 1891 ; four gun-boats are building,
and a battle-ship and cruiser are projected ; five first-class torpedo-
boats have been ordered in England. The fleet is manned by ninety
officers and five hundred men.
EDUCATION.
In 1521, the City of Mexico fell into the hands of the conquering
Spaniards, and exactly eight years after that event there was established
in the City of Mexico the College of San Juan de Letran, for giving
secondary education to intelligent Indians as well as to the sons of the
B&ucation, loi
invading race. Thus, ninety years before the landing of the Pilgrims,
the City of Mexico had its " Harvard."
Universities Established by the Spanish Government. — The first vice-
roy of New Spain, as Mexico was called then, fourteen years after
the conquest, petitioned the King of Spain to permit him to found
a university in Mexico, and, anticipating from his knowledge of the
good-will of the Spanish-rulers that the desired permission would