nothing. ' ' That was the expression which he used. â– ' Surely, ' '
I said, " philosophy is a charming thing." " Charming ! " he
aa Pindar (pin'dar, 522-450 B.C.) : greatest of Greek lyric poets.
58 PLATO THE TEACHER
said; "what simplicity! philosophy is nought; and I think
that if you had been present you would have been ashamed of
your friend — his conduct was so very strange in placing
3 5 himself at the mercy of men who care not what they
say, and fasten upon every word. And these, as I was telling
you, are supposed to be the most eminent professors of their
time. But the truth is, Crito, that the study and the men
themselves are both equally mean and ridiculous." Now his
censure of the pursuit, Socrates, whether coming from him or
from others, appears to me to be undeserved; but as to the
impropriety of holding a public discussion with such men, I
confess that I thought he was in the right about that.
Soc. O Crito, they are marvellous men; but what was I
going to say ? What manner of man was he who came up to
you and censured philosophy; was he an orator who himself
practises in the courts, or an instructor of orators, who makes
the speeches with which they do battle ?
Cri. He was certainly not an orator, and I doubt whether
he had ever been into court ; but they say that he knows the
business, and is a clever man, and composes wonderful
speeches.
Soc. Now I understand, Crito; he is one of an amphibious
class, whom I was on the point of mentioning — one of those
whom Prodicus describes as on the border-ground between
philosophers and statesmen — they think that they are the wis-
est of all men, and that they are generally esteemed the wisest;
nothing but the rivalry of the philosophers stands in their way ;
and they are of the opinion that if they can prove the philoso-
phers to be good for nothing, no one will dispute their title to
the palm of wisdom, for that they are really the wisest, although
they are apt to be mauled by Euthydemus and his friend, when
they get hold of them in conversation. This opinion which
they entertain of their own wisdom is very natural; for they
have a certain amount of philosophy, and a certain amount of
political wisdom; there is reason in what they say, for they
argue that they have just enough of both, while they keep out
of the way of all risks and conflicts and reap the fruits of their
wisdom.
Cri. What do you say of them, Socrates? There is cer-
tainly something specious in that notion of theirs.
Soc. Yes, Crito, there is more speciousness than truth; they
EUTHYDEMUS 59
cannot be made to understand the nature of intermediates. For
all persons or things, which are intermediate between two
other things, and participant of them — if one of these
two things is good and the other evil, are better than the
one and worse than the other ; but if they are in a mean be-
tween two good things which do not tend to the same end, they
fall short of either of their component elements in the attain-
ment of their ends. Only in the case when the two component
elements which do not tend to the same end are evil is the
participant better than either. Now if philosophy and political
action are both good, but tend to different ends, and they per-
ticipate in both, and are in a mean between them, then they
are talking nonsense, for they are worse than either; or, if the
one be good and the other evil, they are better than the one
and worse than the other; only on the supposition that they
are both evil could there be any truth in what they say. I do
not think that they will admit that their two pursuits are
either wholly or partly evil; but the truth is, that these phi-
losopher-politicians who aim at both fall short of both in the
attainment of their respective ends, and are really third, al-
though they would like to stand first. There is no need, how-
ever, to be angry at this ambition of theirs — they may be for-
given that; for every man ought to be loved who says and
manfully pursues and works out anything which is at all like
wisdom : at the same time we shall do well to see them as
they really are.
Cri. I have often told you, Socrates, that I am in a constant
difficulty about my two sons. What am I to do with them ?
There is no hurry about the younger one, who is only a child ;
but the other, Critobulus, is getting on, and needs some one
who will improve him. I cannot help thinking, when I hear
you talk, that there is a sort of madness in many of our anx-
ieties about our children : in the first place, about marrying
a wife of good family to be the mother of them, and then about
heaping up money for them — and yet taking no care about
their education. But then again, when I contemplate any of
those who pretend to educate others, I am amazed. They
all seem to me to be such outrageous beings, if I am to
confess the truth : so that I do not know how I can advise the
youth to study philosophy.
Soc. Dear Crito, do you not know that in every profession
60 PLATO THE TEACHER
the inferior sort are numerous and good for nothing, and the
good are few and beyond all price: for example, are not gym-
nastic and rhetoric and money- making and the art of the gen-
eral, noble arts ?
Cri. Certainly they are, in my judgment. '
Soc. Well, and do you not see that in each of these arts the
many are ridiculous performers?
Cri. Yes, indeed, that is very true.
Soc. And will you on this account shun all these pursuits
yourself and refuse to allow them to your son ?
Cri. That would not be reasonable, Socrates.
Soc. Do you then be reasonable, Crito, and do not mind
whether the teachers of philosophy are good or bad, but think
only of Philosophy herself. Try and examine her well and
truly, and if she be evil seek to turn away all men from her,
and not your sons only ; but if she be what I believe that she
is, then follow her and serve her, you and your house, as the
saying is, and be of good cheer.
PROTAGORAS
TRODUCTION
The Euthydemus shows Socrates in contrast with the baser
sort of sophists ; the Protagoras shows him in contrast with
the higher sort.*
The points of contrast between the philosopher and the
Sophists are, however, by no means so clear in the latter
dialogue. A fundamental difficulty in the interpretation of
this dialogue lies in the fact that one can not always be sure
what Plato's own opinion is about the views expressed by
the different speakers. Protagoras and his fellow Sophists
are made to speak effectively, sometimes nobly. Socrates
is sometimes deeply in earnest, sometimes deeply ironical.
To decide just what Plato himself believes on every question
discussed is therefore difficult and sometimes impossible.
The dialogue is in fact deeply dramatic. The Sophists
here portrayed are not men of straw labelled with opinions
which are to be destroyed in the conclusion. These men
have dramatic if not also historic vitality. They are ex-
hibited as scholars and gentlemen, whose views are at any
rate worth serious attention. (Consider for example the
views of Protagoras on the treatment of animals, on the
capacity of man for improvement as compared with the
lower animals, and on the influence of civilized as compared
with savage life upon the individual.) The main contentions
of Protagoras*that virtue can be taught, and that there are
* S?l General Introduction, pages xviii, xx, and xxvii.
63
64 PLATO THE TEACHER
many distinct virtues, are also in an important sense true. It
may even seem to some that Protagoras appears to advan-
tage in comparison with Socrates. The views set forth by
Socrates are strange, paradoxical, and to many will seem
false. That virtue can not be taught, that the virtues are
one and that virtue is the knowledge of the pleasures and
pains involved in action, are all statements which are likely to
meet with strong denial. Careful study will serve to clear
up some of the difficulties. That virtue can not be taught
means with Socrates that virtue can not be brought to a man
but must be born in him. That all the virtues are one
means with him, that all particular forms or manifestations
of virtue, such as those we call courage, temperance, etc.,
spring from a common principle, and are in fact one in idea.
The common principle to which all the virtues are reduced is
knowledge. Virtue can therefore be taught, — not indeed
brought to one from without but awakened in one by proper
influences. The view that virtue is knowledge of the total
pleasure and pain involved in action has been most severely
criticized. Plato modified this view in his later dialogues.
He continued to hold, however, that the purest virtue leads
to the greatest happiness in this and the future life.
Taking the dialogue as a whole, one may see that Plato
means to show the Sophists at their best and then to show
that Socrates was superior to them not simply with their
own weapons, but in a far higher sense. The Sophists have
views which often appear excellent, but which are self-con-
tradictory and for which in any case they can give no deep
and real reason. Socrates wishes to judge upon the ques-
tions in issue from the stand -point of absolute truth as re-
vealed by philosophy. The contrast between the method of
the Sophists and that of Socrates is as significant as that be-
tween the doctrines. They put their trust in rhetoric, — in
the forms of discourse which charm and persuade. Socrates
INTRODUCTION 65
chooses the less attractive method of cross-examination, with
the purpose of revealing the contradictions involved in the
fine speeches of his antagonists, and with the purpose of ar-
riving at positive results which are not self-contradictory.
While the Protagoras is a brilliant example of the sort of
dispute which, without doubt, frequently took place between
Socrates and the Sophists, it can not be regarded as Plato's
most successful presentation of his own point of view. For
the most complete victory of the philosopher over the Soph-
ist, in regard to the whole theory of life, one must look to
the Republic.
5
^^V^J^SSm^ye THE dialogue..
Socrates, who is the narrator of Protagoras, )
the Dialogue to his Companion. Hippias, V Sophists.
Hippocrates. Prodicus, )
Alcibiades. Callias, a wealthy Athenian.
Critias.
Scene : — The House of Callias.
Com. Where do you come from, Socrates ? And yet I need
hardly ask the question, as I know that you have been
in chase of the fair Alcibiades. I saw him the day be- Steph.
fore yesterday; and he had got a beard like a man, —
and he is a man, as I may tell you in your ear. But I
thought that he was still very charming.
1 Hippocrates (hfp-pok'ra-tez) : comparatively unknown ; not mentioned
elsewhere by Plato.
Alcibiades (al"si-bf'a-dez) : a beautiful and wealthy Athenian of great
ability, who spent himself in reckless dissipation. He was in youth an inti-
mate friend of Socrates, who saw his talent and sought, though without suc-
cess, to win him from vice to virtue. See Symposium, 212 and following;
Apology, note 34.
Protagoras (pro-tag'o-ras) : a celebrated Sophist from Abdera (ab-de'ra, a
city of Thrace on the ^Egean) celebrated especially for his skill as a rhet-
orician. He was the first philosopher who received pay for teaching. He
was very popular and received as much as 100 minae ($1,600 to $1,800) from
a pupil. He was more serious in his instruction than most of the other Soph-
ists.
Hippias (hip'pi-as) of Elis (a city of Greece about one hundred and
thirty miles west of Athens), was noted for his remarkable memory and gen-
eral learning. He was boastful and superficial. Two dialogues, attributed
to Plato, bear his name.
Prodicus (prodT-cus) of Ceos (se'os, an island in the ^Egean), was a gram-
marian, rhetorician, and orator. The expression "wiser than Prodicus"
became a proverb.
Callias (kal'li-as). See Apology, note 9.
Critias (krit'i-as) : an accomplished Athenian ; in youth, a disciple of Soo*
rates, later the chief of the Thirty Tyrants. See Apology, note 34.
6 7
68 PLATO THE TEACHER
Soc. What of his beard ? Are you not of Homer's opinion,
who says that —
" Youth is most charming when the beard first appears? "
And that is now the charm of Alcibiades.
Com. Well, and how do matters proceed ? Have you been
visiting him, and was he gracious to you ?
Soc. Yes, I thought that he was very gracious ; and es-
pecially to-day, for I have just come from him, and he has been
helping me in an argument. But shall I tell you a strange
thing ? Although he was present, I never attended to him, and
several times he quite passed out of my mind.
Com. What is the meaning of this? Has anything hap-
pened between you and him? For surely you cannot have
discovered a fairer love 2 than he is ; certainly not in this city
of Athens.
Soc. Yes, much fairer.
Com. What do you mean — a citizen or a foreigner?
Soc. A foreigner.
Com. Of what country ?
Soc. Of Abdera.
Com. And is this stranger really in your opinion fairer than
the son of Cleinias ? 3
Soc. And is not the wiser always the fairer, sweet friend ?
Com. But have you really met, Socrates, with some wise
one?
Soc. Yes ; I would say rather, with the wisest of all living
men, if you are willing to accord that title to Protagoras.
Com. What ! Do you mean to say that Protagoras is in
Athens ?
Soc. Yes ; he has been here two days.
Com. And do you just come from an interview with him?
Soc. Yes ; and I have heard and said many things.
Com. Then, if you have no engagement, suppose that
you sit down and tell me what passed, and my attendant shall
give up his place to you.
Soc. To be sure ; and I shall be grateful to you for listen-
ing.
Com. Thank you, too, for telling us.
8 See Phasdrus, note 9. 3 Son of Cleinias (kli'nf-as) : Alcibiades.
Protagoras 69
Soc. That is thank you twice over. Listen then : —
Last night, or rather very earlv this morning, Hippocrates,
the son of Apollodorus and the brother of Phason, 4 gave a tre-
mendous thump with his staff at my door ; some one opened to
him, and he came rushing in and bawled out : Socrates, are
you awake or asleep ?
I knew his voice, and said : Hippocrates, is that you ? and
do you bring any news ?
Good news, he said ; nothing but good.
Very good, I said ; but what news ? and why have you
come here at this unearthly hour ?
He drew nearer to me and said : Protagoras is come.
Yes, I said ; he came two days ago ; have you only just
heard of his arrival ?
Yes, indeed, he said ; I heard yesterday evening.
At the same time he felt for the truckle-bed, and sat down
at my feet, and then he said : I heard yesterday quite late in
the evening, on my return from CEenoe 5 whither I had gone in
pursuit of my runaway slave Satyrus 6 — as I was going to have
told you if some other matter had not come in the way ; on
my return, when we had done supper and were about to retire
to rest, my brother said to me : Protagoras is come. And I
was going to you at once, if I had not considered that the
night was far spent. But when sleep relaxed her hold on me
after my toil, I got up and came hither direct.
I, who knew the very courageous madness of the man, said:
What is the matter? has Protagoras robbed you of anything?
He replied, laughing: Yes, indeed he has, Socrates, of the
wisdom which he keeps to himself.
But, surely, I said, if you give him money, and make
friends with him, he will make you as wise as he is himself.
Would to heaven, he replied, that he would ! He might
take all that I have, and all that my friends have, if he would.
And that is why I have come to you now, in order that you
may speak to him on my behalf; for I am young, and
also I have never seen nor heard him (when he visited
Athens before I was but a child) ; and all men praise him, Soc-
rates, as being the most accomplished of speakers. There is no
4 Apollodorus (a-pol'lo-do'rus) ; Phason (fa'son) : neither one mentioned in
other dialogues of Plato.
6 CEnoe (en-6'e) : a deme of Attica. See Apology, note 36.
8 Satyrus (s3t'y-rus).
70 PLATO THE TEACHER
reason why we should not go to him at once, and then we
shall find him at home. He lodges, as I hear, with Callias,
the son of Hipponicns. 7 Let us start.
I replied : Not yet, my good friend ; the hour is too early.
But let us rise and take a turn in the court and wait there un-
til daybreak, and when the day breaks, then we will go ; for
Protagoras is generally at home, and we shall be sure to find
him j never fear.
Upon this we got up and walked about in the court, and I
thought that I would make trial of the strength of his resolu-
tion. So I examined him and put questions to him. Tell me,
Hippocrates, I said, as you are going to Protagoras, and will
be paying your money to him, what is he to whom you are
going ? and what will he make of you ? If you were going to
Hippocrates, the Coan, the Asclepiad, 8 and were about to give
him your money, and some one said to you : As being what,
do you give money to your namesake Hippocrates, O Hippo-
crates ? what would you answer ?
I should say, he replied, that I give money to him as a
physician.
And what will he make of you ?
A physician, he said.
And if you went to Polycleitus 9 the Argive, or Phidias 10
the Athenian, and intended to give them money, and some
one were to ask you : As being what, do you give this money
to Polycleitus and Phidias? what would you answer?
I should answer, as being statuaries.
And what will they make of you ?
A statuary, of course.
Well now, I said, you and I are going to Protagoras, and
we are ready to pay him money for you. If our own means
7 Hipponicus (hip'p5-ni'cus).
8 Hippocrates (hfp-pok'ra-tez, 460-377 B.C.): a famous Greek physician,
born in Cos, an island of the iEgean. He belonged to the race of the As-
clepiadai (as'kle-pl'a de) so called because supposed to be descendants of
Asclepius (as-kle'pf-us) or .-Esculapius (es'ku-la'pf-us), god of medicine. This
family were an order of priests who regarded the knowledge of medicine as
a secret which they handed down from father to son.
9 Polycleitus (pSl'y-kli'tus, 5th century B.C.): a noted Greek sculptor who
contributed much to the development of Greek art ; a native of Argos, a
city of Greece about sixty miles southwest of Athens.
10 Phidias (fid'i-as 490 7-432? B.C.) : the greatest sculptor and statuary of
Greece. His works were the glory of Greece, and have never been sur-
passed.
PROTAGORAS J\
are sufficient, and we can gain him with these, we shall be too
glad j but if not, then we are to spend your friends' money as
well. Now suppose, that while we are in this intense state of
excitement, some one were to say to us : Tell me, Socrates,
and you Hippocrates, as being what, are you going to pay
money to Protagoras ? how should we answer him ? I know
that Phidias is a sculptor, and Homer is a poet ; but what
appellation is given to Protagoras? how is he designated?
They call him a Sophist, Socrates, he replied.
Then we are going to pay our money to him in the charac-
ter of a Sophist ?
Certainly.
But suppose a person were to ask this further question :
And how about yourself? what will Protagoras make you if
you go to see him ?
He answered, with a blush upon his face (for the day
was just beginning to dawn, so that I could see him) : Unless
this differs in some way from the former instances, I suppose
that he will make a Sophist of me.
And are you not in sober earnest ashamed, I said, at having
to appear before the Hellenes 11 in the character of a Sophist?
Indeed, Socrates, if I am to confess the truth, I am.
But why do you assume, Hippocrates, that the instruction
of Protagoras is of this nature ? and why may you not learn
of him in the same way that you learned the arts of the gram-
marian, or musician, or trainer, 12 not with the view of making
any of them a profession, but only as a part of education, and
because a private gentleman and freeman ought to know
them?
Just so, he said ; and that, in my opinion, is a far truer ac-
count of the teaching of Protagoras.
I said : I wonder whether you know what you are doing?
And what am I doing ?
You are going to commit your soul to the care of a man
whom you call a Sophist. And yet I hardly think that you
M Hellenes (hel-le'nez) : In very ancient times the name Hellas (heHas)
was applied to a small district in northern Greece and the name Hellenes to
the people of that district. In the course of time the application of these
terms was gradually extended until in Plato's day all Greek people were
called Hellenes and all countries inhabited by them were included under
the name Hellas.
12 Teacher of gymnastics.
J2 PLATO THE TEACHER
know what a Sophist is, and if not, then you do not even
know whether you are committing your soul to good or evil.
I certainly think that I do know, he replied.
Then tell me, what do you imagine that he is?
I take him to be one who is wise and knowing, he replied,
as his name implies. 13
And might you not, I said, affirm this of the painter and
the carpenter also ; are not they, too, wise and knowing ?
But suppose a person were to ask us : In what are the paint-
ers wise ? We should answer : In what relates to the making
of likenessess, and similarly of other things. And if he were
further to ask : What is the wisdom of the Sophist, and what
is the manufacture over which he presides ? how should we
answer him ?
How should we answer him, Socrates ? What other answer
could there be but that he presides over the art which makes
men eloquent ?
Yes, I replied, that is very likely a true, but not a suffi-
cient answer ; for a further question is involved : About what
does the Sophist make a man eloquent ? The player on the
lyre may be supposed to make a man eloquent about that
which he makes him understand, that is about playing the
lyre. Is not that true ?
Yes.
Then about what does the Sophist make him eloquent ?
must not he make him eloquent in that which he understands ?
Yes, that may be assumed.
And what is that which the Sophist knows and makes his
disciple know ?
Indeed, he said, that I cannot tell.
Then I proceeded to say : Well, but are you aware of the
danger which you are incurring? If you were going to com-
mit the body to some one, and there was a risk of your
getting good or harm from him, would you not carefully
consider and ask the opinion of your friends and kindred,
and deliberate many days as to whether you should give
him the care of your body? But when the soul is in question,
which you hold to be of far more value than the body, and
upon the well or ill-being of which depends your all, — about
this you never consulted either with your father or with your
13 The term Sophist is derived from the Greek word sophos, wise.
PROTAGORAS 73
brother or with any one of us who are your companions. But
no sooner does this foreigner appear, than you instantly com-
mit your soul to his keeping. In the evening, as you say, you
hear of him, and in the morning you go to him, never delib-
erating, or taking the opinion of any one as to whether you
ought to intrust yourself to him or not ; you have quite made
up your mind that you will be a pupil of Protagoras, and are
prepared to expend all the property of yourself and of your
friends in carrying out at any price this determination, al-
though, as you admit, you do not know him, and have never
spoken with him : and you call him a Sophist, but are mani-
festly ignorant of what a Sophist is j and yet you are going to
commit yourself to his keeping.
When he heard me say this he replied : That I suppose, So-
crates, is the conclusion which I must draw from your words.
I proceeded : Is not a Sophist, Hippocrates, one who deals
wholesale or retail in the food of the soul ? To me that ap-
pears to be the sort of man.
And what, Socrates, is the food of the soul ?
Surely, I said, knowledge is the food of the soul ; and we
must take care, my friend, that the Sophist does not deceive
us when he praises what he sells, like the dealers wholesale or
retail who sell the food of the body ; for they praise indis-
criminately all their goods, without knowing what are really
beneficial or hurtful : neither do their customers know, with
the exception of any trainer or physician who may happen to
buy of them. In like manner those who carry about the
wares of knowledge, and make the round of the cities, and
sell or retail them to any customer who is in want of them,
praise them all alike ; and I should not wonder, O my friend,