oblong in the Negro races ; yet that none of
the characters laid down by Vrolik are con-
stant, nor belong exclusively to any particular
race, but that deviations from the usual form
in any race present characteristics which gene-
rally belong to other varieties of the human
species.
The coincidence between the prevailing
form of the skull and that of the pelvic
brim in these classes of the human race is
worthy of especial remark, and influences ma-
terially, as before mentioned, the adaptation
of the foetal skull to the pelvic passage during
labour. After the form of the skull, that of
the pelvis is perhaps the most characteristic
of race of any in the body, because of its great
influence upon the shape of the trunk ; and
yet, from Weber's researches, it would appear
PELVIS, lol
that it is not sufficiently so to constitute a tablish separate generic classifications of the
greater distinction than that of variety, and is human species.
not exclusive enough in its peculiarities to es- In the Simice, and those even which most
COMPARATIVE PELVIC DIMENSIONS.
' I
f
I
c
i (Female).
impanzce
nalc).
i Museum.)
if
ran-Utan.
n Museum.)
I|J
JC *
1
I
i
.2
"ft
m
J3
D.2
h
fc
1
3
H
1
m
"a
^1
e
Diameters.
In. Lines.
In. Lines
In. Lines
In. Lines
In. Lines
In. Lines.
In. Lines
In. Lines
Of brim Transverse
3 9
4 6
3 6
5
4
3 3
3 9
2 3
Oblique -
4 3
4 3
3 8
5
5 3
4 9
4 9
Antero-posterior
4 1
4
3 3
4 6
5 9
5 6
5
4 4
Of cavity Antero-posterior
4 9
4 9
3 10
4 9
5
3
4
Of inferior outlet Transverse
(inter-sciatic)- -
3 3
4
3 2
4 6
3 9
4
2 9
3
Antero-posterior
3
3 3
3 5
4
4 6
3 6
4
Between anterior superior iliac
8 fi
8 6
7 3
8 3
10
5 6
LI O
4
Depth of true Pelvis.
o o
11 \j
Between sacral promontory and
tip of coccyx ....
-
5 6
4
4 6
5
4 6
4 6
Between ilio-pectineal eminence
and sciatic tuberosity
4 3
3 9
3 6
2 10
4 10
3 6
4
Between upper and lower border
of symphysis pubis
Depth of whole Pelvis.
1 9
1 6
1 3
1 3
2 6
1 10
2
Between iliac crest and sciatic tuber :
_
8
7
7 6
10 9
9
9 6
5 4
Between tuber ischii and anterior
superior iliac spine
_
6 6
5 6
6
9 6
8
8
Between tuber ischii and posterior
superior iliac spine
-
6 3
5 6
6
10
9
8 6
Between ischial spines
3
3 3
3 3
4 3
3 9
3 2
3
Breadth of sacrum -
3 9
3 9
3 3
4 6
3
2 3
3 3
Angles Sacro-vertebral -
_
120
115
135
158
145
150
Pel vi- vertebral -
-
145
145
140
Sub-pubic -
-
60
85
90
80
60
50
closely approach in osseous conformation the
human race, as in the genera Pithecus and
Troglodytes, the form of the pelvis is suffi-
cient, at a glance, to distinguish them even
from the Bushman and Australian, which
have been seen to present all the pelvic pecu-
liarities of the higher varieties of humanity.
An inspection of the foregoing table will at
once show this in the pelvic diameters. It
will be seen that the antero-posterior dia-
meters in the Chimpanzee, Uran-utan, and
Gibbon prevail greatly over the transverse ;
that the depth both of 'the whole and the true
pelvis is much greater than in the human pelvis ;
and that the sacrum is much narrower, espe-
cially in the Chimpanzee, and the ischial spines
more closely approximated. The, sacro-ver-
tebral angle, too, is remarkably increased, es-
pecially in the Chimpanzee (160), the sacrum
being placed much more nearly in the direc-
tion of the whole spinal column, and having a
less vertical, as well as a much less horizontal
curvature, with no sacral promontory in the
Chimpanzee, and little in the Uran ; while the
coccyx is straighter, and placed more in the
line of the spinal column, and its tip is ele-
vated above the level of the upper border of
the symphysis pubis, so that the whole of the
sacrum and coccyx is seen in front view. (See
fig. 92.)
This high position of the coccyx is owing
partly to the shortness of the sacrum, which is
composed of three large flat vertebrae, all
entering" into the formation of the sacro-iliac
joint, and united by ankylosis to two of
the four coccygeal pieces in the Uran, and to
one only in the Gibbons. In the Chimpanzee,
however, there are four sacral vertebrae, all
articulating laterally with the ilia, and the
anterior sacral foramina are very small. The
coccyx is composed of five vertebrae.
The ilia are much longer, thicker, more
massive, and narrower, and present no central
transparent portion nor internal fossa, being
flat anteriorly and concave posteriorly, the re-
verse of the human ilia, and looking almost
directly backwards and forwards, and very
little inwards and upwards ; so that, in these
animals, there cannot be said to be any false
pelvic cavity. In the Uran of the Hunterian Mu-
seum they are two thirds of the femurs in length,
and measure 6 inches, and in the Chimpanzee
7 inches, reaching as high as the third lumbar
vertebra. From the limited expansion of the
L 4
152
PELVIS.
wings, the anterior part seems deficient, the
anterior superior spine (a) being placed directly
over the cotyloid cavity ; and the crest (c)
being, consequently, very short, terminating
abruptly at the vertical rib mentioned in the
description of the human ilium. The alts
are more expanded in the Uran than the
Chimpanzee. The crest does not present the
lateral /-like curvature, and is less arched
than in man. The anterior iliac spines are
more widely separated, the inferior (6) being
scarcely discernible, and the border between
them thin and concave. The posterior, or
iliac tuberosity is even less prominent in these
animals than in the lower order of Ruminants.
The distance from the cotyloid to the sacro-
iliac joint is 3^ inches in the Hunterian Chim-
panzee, and about 3 inches in the Uran, though,
from the greater straightness and obliquity of
the cotylo-sacral arch (d) and the want of the
anterior curve, the direct horizontal distance
between these points is about the same as
in man.
In the Simice generally, the ilia are said to
be placed almost in a straight line with the
spinal column. Added to the great length
of the ilia, this arrangement causes the pelvic
brim to be much elongated from before back-
wards ; but much less so, however, than it
would be if the pubes and iliac shafts were in
the same plane. I have, however, found the
ilio-vertebral angle in Chimpanzee, Uran, long-
armed Gibbon, and brown Baboon to be very
little, if at all greater than the human pelvi-
vertebral y as far as could be ascertained without
actual section of the bones. But in the Lemurs
the ilia are only 10 from being in the same
straight line with the spine ; while in the Man-
drill and many Monkeys they are almost pa-
rallel. This characteristic, heightened by that
of the much diminished curve of the lumbar
vertebra and the elongation of the iliac shafts
in these animals, contributes to form a great
Fig. 92.
Pelvis of the adult Chimpanzee, anterior view.
contrast with those of the human pelvis. In
the Uran, a projection of the sacro-iliac joint in
front is observable, and a solidity of the shafts
of the ilia. Blainville remarks, that the sacro-
iliac facet is oval in these animals.
The ischia, in common with the whole
pelvis, are longer in the Chimpanzee than in
the Uran ; and the ischial tuberosities (e) more
turned outwards. In both, however, they are
directed much more in the line of the ilia than
in the human species, the ilio -ischial angle
being 165 ; and are larger, more flattened,
spread, and diverging. The ischial spines in
these animals begin to degenerate, and are
rather rounded eminences or ridges than true
spines; and the inferior rami (/) are directed
almost horizontally inwards, leaving a large
triangular foramen obturatorium, and entering
into the formation of the pubic symphysis (g),
which in the Sonus generally, may be more
properly called the ischio-pubic symphysis. The
whole of the ischial portion of the pelvis has
a more anterior position, and a more laterally
flattened appearance than in the human pelvis.
The cotyloid cavities are small, elongated ver-
tically, and deeper behind than above. The
sciatic notches are long and narrow.
One of the most remarkable differences from
the human pelvis, however, is the difference of
direction of the ilia and pubes with regard to
the transverse-vertical plane of the spinal
column, an arrangement which bends the plane
of the pelvic brim at the ilio-pectineal eminence
in different directions. In the Chimpanzee, the
antero- posterior angle y formed by the su-
perior ramus of the pubis with the cotylo-
sacral arch of the ilium, is 120, and in the
Uran 125 ; constituting a striking difference
from the human pelvis, where the cotylo-sacral
and pubic arches are in one plane.
This alteration in the direction of the pubis
will be found to be a great characteristic of
all quadrupeds, in the prone position of whose
bodies the pubis has a tendency to be placed
more vertical and more anterior, to be out
of the way of the femurs in their angular
movements. In the Sloths and Anteaters,
the pubis will be seen to be turned in the
opposite direction, yet still forming an angle
with the ilium, but with the retiring sides
turned backwards. I think, therefore, we may
safely take the ilio-pubic angle as a general
peculiarity of the inferior animals possessing
pelves, and one which distinguishes them, as
far as I hare seen, universally, from the human
species (see page 173./g. 112.213.).
A remarkable consequence of this more
horizontal direction of thejpubis in the Simus is
the disappearance of the angle of the symphysis,
it being quite parallel with the spinal column.
And this parallel position is, according to Cu-
vier, a mark of distinction between all the brute
creation and man. In other respects, the
pubis of the Simice is short, little arched,
and without marked spine. The inferior
outlet of the pelvis is larger than it would
otherwise be, from the elevation of the coccyx,
and, from the shortness of the sacrum, and
length of the ischio-pubic symphysis, its plane
is more parallel, and its axis more in a line
with those of the brim than in man.
So we see, in these animals, a marked and
PELVIS.
153
evident degeneracy of pelvic structure, allying
them much more closely to the quadrupeds,
especially to the Carnivora, than to mankind.
And we may remark, more especially, that their
fitness for the habitual erect position is much
diminished by the want of direct antero-pos-
terior extension of the pelvis, produced by the
flatness of the sacrum and the lesy marked
sacro-vertebral angle, and the shortness and
change of direction of the pubis; which renders
the arms of the pelvic lever shorter from the
cotyloid fulcrum, and the hold of the extensor
and flexor muscles of the thigh less powerful
in maintaining the standing posture. And, cor-
responding to this, we see in these animals,
great diminution in the bulk of these muscles,
particular!} in the glutei and gastrocnemii, the
plumpness of which constitute the buttocks
and calves characteristic of the human figure
From this cause, the gait of these animals in
bipedal progression is very unsteady.
The expanded, everted, and large ischial
tuberosities, and the strength of the ischio-
sacral arch, indicate that the sitting posture is
more natural to the Simial race ; while the
greater depth of the posterior than the supe-
rior part of the cotyloid brim shows, as well
as the marked ilio-pubic angle, a provision for
femoral support in a semiflexed, rather than an
extended position. In the erect posture, from
the flatness of the pelvis, the ischial tuberosi-
ties are brought close upon the femurs, and
reach nearly half-way down their short shafts,
interfering much with their motion.
According to Grant and Wagner, there is
no cotyloid notch nor ligamentum teres in the
Orangs; but the cotyloid notch is present,
though small, in the skeletons I have examined.
In the Hylobatis Lar^ or long-armed Gibbon,
the iliac wings are flatter, and directed still
more antero-posteriorly, crest rounded, large,
and elevated ; ischia short, in a right line with
the ilia, with flattened and expanded tube-
rosities, spines more distinctly marked, and
rami directed, like the elongated pubes, more
directly inwards. The cotyloid cavities are
thus more widely separated, and the superior
pelvic outlet has a triangular form, with the
small end directed backwards. The sacrum is
narrow and flat, forming a large angle with the
spine, and composed of five vertebrae, of which
the three upper, considered by Blainville to
be the only true sacral vertebrae, articulate
with the ilia. The coccyx, consisting, ac-
cording to Blainville, of seven, according to
others, of five vertebrae, is short, there being
no tail. The inferior outlet is large, and the
true pelvis shallow, from the shortness and
expansion of ischia.
The subgenera CUKtibir, Cercocebus, and
Semnopithecus present an elongation of the
coccyx into a caudal appendage with prehensile
attributes, and perforated for the continuation
of the spinal cord, which widens still more the
progressive separation from the human type.
In the Squirrel Monkey are three sacral
bones, of which the two upper articulate with
the ilia, and the broad transverse processes of
the last project towards the ischia, so as to
give a square outline to the inferior outlet.
Ischial tuberosities not flattened. In the
Capuchin Monkey the ilia are parallel with
the spine, the ischia are inclined forwards to
the abdominal surface, and the pubes are
more oblique. In the Semnopithecus entellus
the sacrum is more arched laterally and
broader. The ilia are prismatic and" long,
and project more behind the spinal column.
The ischia and pubes are short, with flattened
and expanded tuberosities, and no ischial
spine. Ilio-pectineal eminence marked. In
these tribes the posterior border of the
elongated ilia is the thickest part of the bone,
the anterior part being thinned and spread
out more or less. The pubes are generally
placed nearly at right angles to the ilia, and
the lumbo-iliac angle is about 160.
Of the genus Cercopithecus, or Baboon tribe,
there is, in the brown Baboon, a well marked
sacro-vertebral angle (155); the two upper
of the three sacral vertebrae only articulate
with the ilia. The caudal vertebrae are not
numerous. The ilia are more expanded, but
still present the posterior concavity. The
ischia are short, with very broad and flattened
tuberosities. The pubes are flattened, with an
acute superior border, and rostrated at the
symphysis. Ilio-pubic angle more marked ( 1 10).
In the Mandrill, Papio Mammon, the sacrum is
more arched both vertically and transversely,
and the promontory better marked. The
coccygeal vertebrae are four in number, and
there is no tail. The ilia are parallel with the
spine, directly under which are placed the co-
tyloid cavities. The ischia are short, with
much-expanded and flat tubers. The pubes
are at right angles, both to ilia and spine, and
the ischio-pubic symphysis is very little ad-
vanced before the plane of the spinal column.
In the Sapajous, or American Monkeys,
there are three sacral vertebrae, of which the
first only articulates with the ilia in the
Onistiti. In the White-bellied Ateles the ilia
are longer and more expanded ; pubes more
oblique ; ischia short, with no spine, and small
tuberosities. In the Saimiri there is a very
short ilio-ischium.
In the Lemurs, or Makis, the sacrum is in
a right line with the spine. Of the three
sacral vertebrae, the first only articulates with
the ilia, and the last is not ossified to the
second. They differ little from the lumbar
vertebrae, except in the thicker transverse
processes. Caudal vertebrae numerous. The
pelvis generally is very weak, narrow, and
short. The Uia are narrow and almost pa-
rallel with the spine, and the ilio-pectineal
eminence is unusually well marked ; but the
ischial tuberosities are delicate, indicating the
less frequent sitting posture in these animals,
and a still greater tendency to quadruped pro-
gression. In the Lemur albifrons, however,
the sacrum is broader ; ilia more expanded ;
ischial tuberosities larger and more expanded;
ilio-pubic angle 120. In L. tardigradus the
sacrum is long, narrow, and keeled in the
middle, being ankylosed to the last lumbar
and three first coccygeal vertebrae, as in birds.
154
PELVIS.
The ilia are narrow and cylindrical; pubes
long, large, oblique, with no ilio-pectineal apo-
physis ; ischia short, with horizontal raini and
tuberosities passing backward to articulate
with the transverse processes of the upper
coccygeal vertebrae, another bird-like arrange-
ment. In L.indri the sacral pieces are four,
with complete ankylosis, the two or three
upper articulating with the ilia. Ilia expanded,
with extended crest and external fossa, and
reaching to the penultimate lumbar vertebras ;
ischia very short, with more expanded tubers ;
pubes less oblique. In L. volans, or Galco-
pithecus, the sacrum has five vertebrae, the
first only articulating with ilia. Ilia small
and narrow ; ischia with large posterior angle;
pubic symphysis very short. In the sub-
genus Sterops, the slender Loris presents a
remarkably elongated and contracted pelvis.
The sacrum is long and narrow, with the two
upper pieces articulating with ilia. Ilia slender,
long and columnar, and nearly parallel with
spinal column ; ischia small, flattened laterally,
placed in a line with the ilia, and very near each
other, so that the cotyloid cavities are closely
approximated ; the lateral diameters very short,
Fig. 93.
and the inferior outlet a mere
chink. The pubes are long,
projecting forwards, down-
wards, and inwards, being in-
clined to each other at an
angle of 40, causing the
superior outlet to be trian-
gular, with the base at the
inter" cotyloid diameter, and the
apex at the symphysis pubis.
This pelvis is also remark-
able for the extreme angularity
of the pubic portion with the
iliac, the ilio-pubic angle being
75, or less than aright angle,
the only instance of the kind
I have met with. (See fig.
93. a, b, <?.)
Pelvis of the slender Loris, lateral view.
The animals most allied to the preceding
order of primates in the form of the pelvis,
taken in conjunction with their general struc-
ture, are the Carnivora. In these, as in most
multidigital animals, the pelvis is so con-
tracted that the trunk resembles an in-
verted pyramid ; whereas in man, constructed
for an erect posture, the base of the pyramid
is in the pelvis. Climbing animals, such as
the Apes, Bears, and Sloths, present the
nearest approach to the human structure in
this particular.
In estimating the sacro- and ilio-vertebral
angles in the succeeding orders of Mammalia,
it should be observed that, from the coin-
cidence of the lumbar curve with the great
dorsal curvature of the spinal column and the
elevation of the neck, the vertebra cannot
be considered as being placed in one general
plane, as in man. The line of direction of the
lumbar vertebrae has, therefore, been taken
for the sacral and iliac angles.
The sacrum, in the Carnivora (a, fig. 94.),
is narrow, flat, and triangular, with long and
distinct spinous processes, and placed almost
in a right line with the spine. In the Bear,
however, from its climbing habits, the sacrum
is broader, larger, and more massy, and the
sacro-vertebral angle more marked. The
number of sacral vertebrae is three in the
great majority of the species, the two upper
articulating with the ilia ; but in the Hyaena
there are but two, in the Tiger four, in the
brown Bear five, and in the white Bear as
many as seven. The coccygeal or caudal ver-
tebrae (b) are generally very numerous.
The ilia are moderately long, thick, and
narrow in their whole extent, and are placed
very obliquely upon the lumbar vertebrae,
forming with them an angle of about 150 to
160 ; but in the Bear and Hyaena 140 only.
The external surface of the elongated iliac
wing is concave, and the internal flat and
turned inwards towards the spine ; the crest
(c) thick, narrow, acutely arched, and pro-
jecting backwards beyond the spinal column.
The ischia are long, strong, prismatic, some-
what expanded posteriorly, and considerably
divergent, but directed in the same antero-
posterior plane with the ilia, forming toge-
ther a very long ilio-ischion element. This
disappearance of the antero-posterior, ijio-
ischial angle, which commenced in the Apes,
is, in the Carnivora, arrived at its greatest
extent, and in the Tiger is even reversed
or bent downwards in the opposite direc-
tion about 15 (see fig. 112. 5). With the
great obliquity of the ilia, this affords, in the
quadruped position, a longer and more power-
ful leverage for the muscles of the hinder
extremities to execute their characteristic
bounds, and, like the reverse formation of the
ilio-pubic angle, it is another great distinction
between these and human pelves. The ischial
tuberosities (e) have an outward direction, as
well as the ischia generally, and the spine (g) is
a mere rudimentary ridge. The pubes are short,
and the symphysis (/) is long, being formed
generally both by the ischium and pubis. The
ilio-pubic angle varies from 110 in the Tiger,
to 120 in the Lion and Leopard, and 125
in the Bear and Hyaena.
The anterior pelvic outlet is smaller than the
posterior, from the divergence of the ischia pos-
teriorly ; and the cotyloid cavities are inclined
outwards slightly, so as to overhang the femora
in the prone position.
The centre of gravity, in these animals,
being placed much nearer the anterior than
the posterior extremities, the former bear
the most of the weight, while the latter act
more as impelling agents in the powerful
bounds which they execute.
The ilia of the Bear are shorter, thicker, and
more massive, with more expanded wings, a
better-marked anterior superior spine, and a
more marked lumbo-iliac angle ; the ischia short
and widely expanded, and the pubes remark-
ably strong, with a very long symphysis. At
PELVIS.
155
the anterior pelvic outlet, the transverse dia-
meter is a little larger than the antero-pos-
Fig. 94.
Pehis of the Lion, side view.
terior, and the acetabula are large and deep.
In the Badger the ilia and ischia are large,
expanded, and curved outwards at their free
extremities. The iliac shaft is prismatic, with
an ilio-lumbar angle of 140. The pubes are
rather long, with an elongated symphysis, and
form an angle with the ilia of about 130. The
same general conformation is evident in the
Racoons and Coatis, the ilio-ischial angle being,
however, somewhat better marked, and the ilio-
2)ubic about 145. The Coatis have but one
sacral vertebra. In the Hyaena, also, the
iliac wings are considerably spread, with a
very pointed anterior spine. In the Dingo
the ischio-pubic element is very short, the
anterior outlet and obturator foramina small,
but the posterior outlet larger. The Weasel
has a very small pelvis, with but two sacral
vertebrae, one only articulating with upper
extremities of the long iliac shafts.
In the Phocce the sacrum has four vertebras,
the first only articulating with ilia, and much
wider in its transverse processes than the rest ;
the ilia are extremely short, thick, and curved
outwards, with very small external fossae ; the
ischia are long and slender, with small tuberosi-
ties almost touching the second coccygeal ver-
tebra, with long rami not forming a symphysis,
but directed backward to meet the pubis. The
pubes are very long, slender, and oblique, with
a short symphysis, and including a very large,
oval obturator foramen. The pelvis altogether
somewhat resembles that of the Badger, with
the superior opening much elongated antero-
posteriorly, and triangular in shape, with the
base at the sacrum. The shortness of the ilia
alone indicates the great contraction of the
posterior extremities for their swimming re-